How and when were the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine established? What kinds of organizations are they?

The National Academy of Sciences was created in 1863 by a congressional charter approved by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln. Under this charter, the National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964 and the Institute of Medicine in 1970.

All three organizations are private, non-profit, self-governing membership bodies, and all three share in the responsibility for advising the federal government, upon request and without fee, on questions of science and technology.

The National Academy of Sciences publishes a scholarly journal, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, organizes symposia and convenes meetings on issues of national importance and urgency. The Academy operates very few committees directly; most of its study projects are undertaken by the National Research Council. However, two of the Academy's committee activities are the Committee on International Security and Arms Control and the Committee on Human Rights.

The National Academy of Engineering sponsors engineering studies and other activities designed to assess and meet national needs, encourages engineering education and research, explores means for promoting cooperation in engineering in the United States and abroad, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. The National Academy of Engineering also supports study projects carried out through the National Research Council.

The Institute of Medicine identifies concerns in medical care, research, and education and secures the services of members of appropriate professions to examine policy matters relating to public health. Although the Institute of Medicine is not a part of the formal structure of the National Research Council, its program is subject to approval by the Research Council's Governing Board and its reports are subject to the requirements of the Report Review Committee.

How many members are there in the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine?

Each organization elects new members at their annual meetings. Current membership information is maintained by the membership offices of each Institute:

National Academy of Sciences
National Academy of Engineering
Institute of Medicine

How are members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine selected? Who selects them and what is the process?

In all three organizations, elections of new members take place annually, and new members are nominated and voted on by existing members. The number of new members elected is established either by the bylaws or the council of each organization.

Are members ever removed?

There are no provisions in the governing documents of the Academies or the Institute for the removal of members who are elected for life.

What, if anything, does membership in the Academies or the Institute entail?

Election to membership in the Academies or the Institute is one of the highest honors that a scientist, engineer, or medical professional can receive. Although no formal duties are involved, members of the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering are invited to participate in the governance and advisory activities of the Academies and the National Research Council.

Accepting election to the Institute of Medicine presupposes a willingness to serve on Institute study committees. Members of all three organizations are encouraged to serve on Institute and Research Council committees.

What role do foreign associates have in the two Academies and the Institute? Are they honorary members or do they contribute to the work of the organizations?

Foreign associates are elected by the same standards that apply to regular members. However, these members do not vote during the election of new members or other deliberations of the Academies or the Institute. With the heightened globalism of science and technology, it is anticipated that foreign associates will be drawn increasingly into the work of the National Research Council.

Are there annual meetings?

Each organization holds an annual meeting in Washington, D.C., which includes sessions devoted to business and to scientific and technological issues.

What administrative and policy-setting bodies govern the Academies and the Institute? What are their roles?

Each organization is governed by an elected council, and each council has established committees that deal with specific categories of business.

The councils are responsible to the membership for the activities undertaken by each organization. The Institute of Medicine's council reviews the study activities of the Institute. The National Academy of Sciences' and the National Academy of Engineering's councils cooperate in the governance of the National Research Council, delegating this responsibility to the Research Council's Governing Board, which includes members of the councils of all three organizations. The National Academy of Sciences' council is responsible for the corporate management of the National Academies.

Do the Academies and the Institute have endowments? For what are these funds used?

Yes. These funds are used for self-initiated studies and for expenses, such as costs directly pertinent to membership affairs, that are not recoverable under governmental contracts or as indirect costs.

Why do the Academies and the Institute seek additional endowment funds?

To enable them to conduct studies not requested by federal agencies or other sectors, but deemed critical by the leadership of the Academies and the Institute.

Are members of the Academies and Institute paid?

No. A very few members assume full-time positions within the National Academies and receive salaries, or their institutions are reimbursed for the time that they devote to Academy work. Membership in the Academies and the Institute and participation in Academy activities are voluntary. Reimbursement of travel costs and subsistence support is the only compensation provided.

Who was the first woman elected to the National Academy of Sciences?

Florence Rena Sabin (1871-1953), elected in 1925, was the first woman member of the NAS. A physician as well as a scientific investigator, Dr. Sabin was noted for her discovery of the origin and processes of the lympatic system and for her work on tuberculosis.

Who was the first African-American elected to the National Academy of Sciences?

David Blackwell was the first African-American elected member of the NAS. Born in Centralia, Ill. in 1919, Dr. Blackwell is a mathematician and chaired the University of California, Berkeley's Department of Statistics until his retirement. He has published more than 80 papers.

Who was the youngest scientist elected to the National Academy of Sciences?

Edward C. Pickering (1846-1919), only 26-years-old at the time of his election in 1873, is the youngest person elected to the NAS. Pickering was an astronomer whose work in stellar photometry, stellar photography, and stellar spectrum photography won him the NAS's prestigious Draper medal in 1888.