Appendix B
Zero Waste Hierarchy in Plastics: Background Research¹

For plastics used in packaging, existing literature, U.S. legislation, and international legislation are currently concentrated on the long loop R-strategies (i.e., recycling, recovery). In the United States, current policies are at the state level, and many focus on banning single-use packing plastics in certain applications (e.g., personal care products in large hotels, plastic grocery bags) and on requiring products to include a percentage of recycled plastic content. However, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed a National Strategy to Prevent Plastic Pollution that highlights identifying alternative materials, updating sustainability standards and ecolabels, and increasing public understanding of plastic pollution impacts (U.S. EPA, 2024). The European Union (EU) has implemented a Single Use Plastics Directive that also requires the prohibition of certain packaging plastics (Lüttin, 2025). However, existing efforts to recycle plastics focus on deposit return schemes that do not contribute toward medium and long loop R-strategies. Legislation on promoting plastics reuse schemes (e.g., refill at home, return on the go, return at home) in the United States is another area without reported information.

Currently, information on advancing policies for medium loop R-strategies (i.e., reuse, repair, refurbish, remanufacture, repurpose) for plastics used in building materials is limited. Existing legislation is limited to polyvinyl chloride (PVC) recycling, although other plastics are used in this sector (Almroth & Singla, 2024). Literature and policies on long loop R-strategies for plastics in building materials discuss strategies such as PVC bans, deconstruction versus. demolition, and localization of plastics sourcing.

Plastics used in textiles are increasingly targeted with expanded producer responsibility (EPR) policies that require producers to maintain responsibility for their products

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¹ This appendix was prepared by David Lu and provided in the workshop briefing materials to support the discussions of the participants.

from production to disposal. EPR legislation has passed in multiple U.S. states and other countries. Policies that mandate textiles reuse are only found in Massachusetts, and federal legislation has focused on mitigation of nanofiber release rather than synthetic textiles as an entirety (Mass.gov, n.d.). Other sources emphasize the role of coordinated federal efforts to create a textiles circular economy, develop an economically viable system to collect and recirculate disposed textiles, and promote textile repair.

The R-Strategies for a Circular Economy

The R-strategies refer to a series of resource use and waste management strategies to achieve a circular economy. The 10 R-strategies are organized into 3 categories (short loops, medium loops, long loops) that represent the length of the waste loop. The number associated with each R-strategy and position in the waste hierarchy correspond with the materials and energy consumption needed to complete the waste loop as well as the extent of circularity.

The waste hierarchy is organized to show which R-strategies contribute more towards a circular economy or a linear economy. Short loop R-strategies are considered more sustainable by minimizing waste early in the value chain. Medium loop R-strategies serve to extend product usage. Finally, long loop R-strategies focus on recovering materials and energy from waste processes (Daphne, 2023).

SHORT LOOPS (R0—REFUSE, R1—RETHINK, R2—REDUCE)

Short Loops for Plastics in Packaging

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: National Strategy to Prevent Plastic Pollution: Part Three of a Series on Building a Circular Economy for All (R1, R2)

The EPA National Strategy to Prevent Plastic Pollution presents a 10-year vision of opportunities for voluntary and regulatory actions for businesses, nongovernmental organizations, federal government, academia, and consumers to eliminate the release of plastic waste from land- and sea-based sources into the environment by 2040. Objectives that align with short loops include material innovation, updated product design, and decreased waste generation. Specific product design objectives include reviewing, developing, updating, and using sustainability standards, ecolabels, certifications, and design guidelines that can minimize negative impacts to human health and the environment from plastic products across their lifecycle. Decreased waste generation can be accomplished through enhancing the effectiveness of existing public policies and incentives, expanding the capacity to reuse materials, and increasing public understanding about the

impacts of plastic pollution and ways to appropriately manage plastics and other materials (U.S. EPA, 2024).

World Economic Forum: Circular Industry Solutions for a Global Plastics Treaty (R0, R1)

The World Economic Forum report shares perspectives from industry players across the plastics value chain who have started to develop and implement solutions to address plastic pollution. Interviewees noted policy as a key enabler of making changes mainstream, including clear and consistent definitions when developing policies for global harmonization (e.g., “plastics,” “alternative plastics,” “substitutes for plastics”); standardized testing methods and interpretation procedures; harmonized EPR regulations; bans to remove problematic materials; specific targets for R-strategies to avoid focusing on one strategy while undermining others; and obtaining of trust from end users on the performance, quality, and safety of alternative materials through standards. A clear mapping of the current plastic pollution financing landscape (i.e., actors, activities, flows, instruments) is another missing element that could help industry players to understand the gaps and opportunities (WEF, 2024).

UN Environmental Programme: Turning off the Tap: How the world can end plastic pollution and create a circular economy (R0, R1, R2)

The United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) examined the economic issues of achieving a circular plastics economy and proposed a harmonized approach to address the causes of plastic pollution. Reducing the size of plastics pollution can be achieved by identifying problematic or unnecessary chemicals (e.g., polymers, additives, dyes) that should be prohibited and applying a tax on virgin plastics, including a rate of taxation and conditions that trigger an increase in the rate of taxation. Absent are a common assessment method to identify which plastics can be substituted and a global standard for compostable and biodegradable plastics. Additional policy recommendations include new rules to define the desirable necessary minimum operating standards of EPR regulations and safety standards for reusable design (UNEP, 2023).

U.S. Legislation

US Senate Bill 3127: Break Free from Plastic Pollution Act of 2023 (R2, R3, R8, R9)

This proposed legislation focuses on reducing the production and use of certain single-use plastic products and packaging through mandating EPR schemes, prohibiting single-use plastic bags and polystyrene foam food service products, advancing reuse and

refill systems, prohibiting certain plastics exports, creating environmental justice protections at covered facilities, and regulating plastic pellet release in wastewater. Status: Introduced to the Senate on October 25, 2023, and referred to the Committee on Environment and Public Works (Merkley, 2023).

Connecticut House Bill 6229: An Act Concerning a Reduction of Single-Use Plastics and Polystyrene Waste (R2)

This proposed legislation focuses on reducing the production of single-use plastics and polystyrene waste by prohibiting single-use food ware and packaging comprised of polystyrene, promoting water bottle refill and reuse, forming a task force to study the reduction of single-use plastics in Connecticut to identify alternative materials, developing recommendations for improving the single-use plastics processing infrastructure, determining best methods to adopt circular economy principles, and determining reasonable timeframes for implementing additional single-use plastic reductions. Status: Referred to Joint Committee on Environment on January 23, 2025, and public hearing held on March 7, 2025 (Environment Committee, 2025).

Illinois Senate Bill 2960: Small Single-Use Plastic Bottle Act (R0)

This legislation prohibits hotels with at least 50 rooms (starting in July 2025) and hotels with less than 50 rooms (starting in January 2026) from providing small single-use plastic bottles containing personal care products to customers. Status: Approved in 2024 (Fine, 2024).

Delaware Senate Bill 51: An Act to Amend Title 16 of the Delaware Code Relating to the Use of Single-Service Plastic Implements and Polystyrene Containers in Food Establishments (R0)

This legislation prohibits food establishments from providing consumers with ready-to-eat food or beverages in polystyrene foam containers or with single-service plastic coffee stirrers, cocktail picks, or sandwich picks. Food establishments cannot provide single-service plastic straws unless requested by a customer. Status: Approved on August 22, 2023 (Paradee, 2023).

Washington House Bill 1085: An Act Relating to reducing plastic pollution; amending RCW 70A.245.010, 43.21B.110, and 43.21B.300; adding a new section to chapter 19.27 RCW; adding new sections to Chapter 70A.245 RCW; creating a new section; and prescribing penalties (R0)

This legislation prohibits lodging establishments (i.e., hotels, motels, resorts, short-term rentals) with 50 or more units from providing guest rooms or public bathrooms with

single-use plastic toiletry products. Status: Approved in 2023 (Mena et al., 2023).

California Senate Bill 1046: Solid Waste: Precheckout and Carryout Bags (R0)

This legislation prohibits stores from providing noncompostable or recycled paper pre-checkout bags to customers. Status: Approved on September 30, 2022 (Eggman & Gonzalez, 2022).

International Legislation

European Union: Single-Use Plastic Waste Directive – (R0, R1, R3, R8)

The European Union (EU) Single-Use Plastics Directive is a series of policies to phase out single-use plastics and move toward manufacturing models that favor reusable materials and promote recycling and end-user awareness. Member states have banned the production and use of expanded polystyrene food containers, reduced the use of single-use plastic food containers through EPRs and deposit return schemes, and implemented EPR schemes to reduce the amount of nonrecyclable properties by at least 50 percent and place end-of-life responsibility firmly on the original manufacturers. Status: Implemented in 2019 with expected immediate compliance of member states (Green, 2021).

United Kingdom: Packaging Tax (R0)

This legislation mandates application of a levy on plastic packaging containing less than 30 percent recycled plastic, including products comprised of biodegradable and compostable plastics. Status: Implemented in 2022 (Green, 2021).

China: Plastic Packaging Bans (R0)

A staggered and staged list of directives aims to phase out single-use plastic packaging, including a ban on nondegradable plastic bags and a ban on disposable plastic items in major hotels and guesthouses by the end of 2025. Status: Phase compliance in 2025 (Green, 2021).

Short Loops for Plastics in Building Materials

Science: Plastics Treaty: Address Building Materials (R0, R1)

A letter published in Science highlights that without intervention, the demands for plastic building materials are projected to nearly double by 2050 to 150 million metric tons. Among plastics used in this sector, PVC and polystyrene pose risks across their life cycles, necessitating production caps, phase out of hazardous polymers and chemicals,

and improved transparency to ensure that all materials are safe and sustainable by design. PVC can be replaced using linoleum, ceramic or wood flooring, and metal or concrete piping. Updated building codes can promote the use of safer materials and minimize the demand for plastics (Almroth & Singla, 2024).

Habitable: Buildings’ Hidden Plastic Problem: Policy Brief and Recommendations (R0, R1)

This report from Habitable notes that the impacts of the plastic building material life cycle fall disproportionately on susceptible and marginalized people, including women, children, Indigenous people, low-income communities, and people of color. Policy recommendations include the addition of building materials in relevant plastics policies, targeted phase-out of unnecessary plastic building materials in favor of safer alternatives, bans on chemicals of concern from building materials and offering of safer nonplastic alternatives, use of accurate service life assumptions for building materials in cost-benefit analyses, full transparency and public disclosure of chemicals and additives used in the production of building materials, and investment in research and development to support infrastructure for circular systems of building materials management (Habitable, 2024).

International Sustainable Chemistry Collaborative: Sustainable Building and Living, Focus on Plastics (R0, R1, R5)

This report published by the International Sustainable Chemistry Collaborative highlights that about 20 percent of building materials are made from plastics; the plastic building materials industry is now the second largest consumer in the plastics industry after packaging. While plastic building materials can help to reach some Sustainable Development Goals, such as the reduction of the energy consumption of buildings, they can at the same time conflict with other goals, such as the protection of health. Policy recommendations include the development of sustainable solutions specific to each region based on climate, available raw materials, and other local conditions; support for the informal sector through regulations, financial incentives, social programs, and training; incorporation of life cycle analyses in the design and planning phase; the deconstruction rather than the demolition of buildings with an established market for deconstructed materials; limits on hazardous additives and substitution of hazardous additives with alternatives; and the use of materials from residual biomass or secondary raw materials with a low rate of pollution after disposal (ISC3, 2024).

U.S. Legislation

Washington House Bill 1085: An Act Relating to Reducing Plastic Pollution; Amending RCW 70A.245.010, 43.21B.110, and 43.21B.300; adding a new section to chapter 19.27 RCW; adding new sections to chapter 70A.245 RCW; creating a new section; and

prescribing penalties (R0) This legislation prohibits the sale, distribution, and installation of overwater structures containing expanded or extrude plastic foam and blocks/floats containing expanded or extruded plastic foam that are intended for use in or in conjunction with overwater structures. Status: Approved in 2023 (Mena et al., 2023).

Local PVC regulations (R0, R1)

New York City passed legislation to reduce the city’s purchase of PVC to drive markets for safer, environmentally friendly products. Similar measures have been passed in Boston, Seattle, San Francisco, and Buffalo (Center for Health, Environment & Justice, n.d.).

PVC regulations (R0, R1)

International Legislation

PVC bans have been passed across Europe, including restrictions in Sweden beginning in 1995, more than 60 cities in Spain having been declared PVC-free, and a ban on PVC disposal in landfills and more than 274 communities with restrictions in Germany (Center for Health, Environment & Justice, n.d.).

Short Loops for Plastics in Textiles

European Environment Agency: Plastic in textiles: Towards A Circular Economy for Synthetic Textiles in Europe (R2, R8, R9)

This European Environment Agency report found that European households consumed about 13 million tons of textile products (e.g., clothing, footwear, household textiles) in 2017. An estimated 200,000 to 500,000 tons of microplastics from textiles enter the marine environment each year. Additionally, EU consumers discard approximately 5.8 million tons of textiles each year; of the discarded textiles, one third is collected separately and the rest is largely exported. Solutions to achieving textile circularity include promoting sustainable fiber choices, controlling microplastic emissions, increasing reuse and recycling, and improving separate collection processes (EEA, 2021).

MEDIUM LOOPS (R3—REUSE, R4—REPAIR, R5—REFURBISH, R6—REMANUFACTURE, R7—REPURPOSE)

Medium Loops for Plastics in Packaging

The UN Secretary-General’s Advisory Board on Zero Waste: Rethinking Consumption: The Path to Zero Waste through Reuse and Refill Systems (R3)

This United Nations brief highlights the potential of reuse and refill systems as elements in achieving zero waste goals. Recommendations on actions to stimulate and

expand reuse include advocating for global reuse regulation to support and standardize reuse initiatives; implementing integrated reuse and refill models in waste management and circular economy strategies; establishing health, safety, and hygiene standards and economic incentives to encourage system participation; mandating reuse targets using common metrics for consistent tracking; standardizing definitions of “reuse” and “refill”; prioritizing change in sectors with significant reuse potential (i.e., beverages, personal care); and recognizing waste pickers at key partners in formal reuse systems (UN Habitat, n.d.).

University of Portsmouth Global Plastics Policy Centre: Making reuse a reality: A Systems Approach to Tackling Single-Use Plastic Pollution (R3)

This report from the Global Plastics Policy Centre identifies steps to transform packaging reuse into the new norm across multiple sectors, including leadership and advocacy to challenge the current linear economic approach; a coherent policy approach from government, industries, and geographies to create a favorable environment; internationally coherent reuse standards (i.e., labeling, tagging, washing, required hygiene levels); an inclusive and collaborative approach to promote an accessible and affordable transition; raised awareness of reuse systems for consumers to encourage buy-in and population memory; and development of reuse hubs that service the needs of reuse systems (i.e., collection, washing, replenishment, redistribution, data collection) that build capacity and efficiency for upscaling reuse systems (GPPC, 2023).

U.S. Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy: Transitioning to a Sustainable Circular Economy for Plastics: Workshop Report (R3, R8)

This workshop organized in collaboration between the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Bioenergy Technologies Office, the Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Technologies Office, and The Climate Pledge discussed opportunities and challenges of transitioning to a sustainable, circular economy for plastics in the United States: policy harmonization to address recycling infrastructure limits in recycling safely and economically; improved open-access data sources and metrics to create understandable, credible, and actionable assessment impacts on human health and the environment (including sensitivity analyses to verify if options perceived to be sustainable align with real-world outcomes); increased recycling access and infrastructure such as improved sortation for mechanical and advanced recycling; innovative business models that expand refill and reuse systems with increased consumer acceptance and reduced virgin material use; material innovation (i.e., bio-based, recyclable, biodegradable plastics); and more partnerships between stakeholders across industry, academia, and government to accelerate innovations at scale along with interactions with rural and urban municipalities to support adoption and integration were key discussion points in this field (U.S. DOE, 2023).

RECOUP: Refill Packaging Case Studies (R3)

This presentation from RECOUP examines the value of refillable packaging systems for promoting plastics reuse. Refill at home schemes have a low barrier for entry due to minimum extra steps for participation, cost benefits, and alleviated hygiene concerns because reusable containers can be cleaned per personal requirements. The study found that polyethylene terephthalate, polyethylene, and polypropylene are suitable materials for refill containers; container closures and dispensers are not currently designed to withstand multiple uses and to create an easy refill experience; reduced cost when buying a refill packing is a strong incentive for participation; and raising the percentage of renewable and recycled content are logical next steps (Cham & Akudinova, 2023).

Ellen MacArthur Foundation, New Plastics Economy: Reuse: Rethinking Packaging (R3)

This report published by the Ellen MacArthur Foundation (EMF) overviews multiple types of plastics reuse schemes based on relevant initiatives and expert interviews. Refill at home schemes are applicable in traditional and online retail, particularly e-commerce applications for compact refill products used at home or in office and traditional retail outlets for standard-sized refills. Refill on the go schemes require a physical store or dispensing point and can be better applied in traditional retail outlets and urban environments; this model can accommodate customers’ needs for small quantities at affordable prices (e.g., coffee to go or water fountains). Return from home schemes are suitable for e-commerce applications and can have empty packaging pickup combined with new packaging delivery; current applications include groceries, meal delivery, personal care, home care, and beauty. Return on the go schemes are widely applicable, including traditional retail outlets for beverages and on-the-go products (e.g., takeaway coffee, beverages, food) (EMF, 2019).

Medium Loops for Plastics in Textiles

National Institute of Standards and Technology: Facilitating A Circular Economy for Textiles: Workshop Report (R3, R4)

This workshop report published by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) identified challenges to implementing textiles reuse and repair schemes, including lagging consumer and industry acceptance that reuse is preferrable; requirements on clothing cleanliness; a lack of awareness on reuse capabilities and knowledge, tools, interest, and time to repair garments; high transportation costs; a disenfranchised repair industry; and the inferior quality of fast fashion textiles. Opportunities to advance these strategies include improving education on garment repair and sources for repair support,

consumer education on donating and purchasing used products, and building industry acceptance and support for resell and repair (Schumacher & Forster, 2022).

U.S. Legislation

Massachusetts: Clothing and Textile Recovery Schemes (R3)

The Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection final 2030 Solid Waste Master Plan includes the goal of achieving a 90 percent reduction in textile disposal to 570,000 tons by 2050. Current policies prohibit the disposal of textiles (e.g., clothing, footwear, bedding, curtains, fabric, and textile scraps that are clean and dry). The Department-supported Beyond the Bin Recycling Directory shows locations for dropping off unwanted textiles for donation to organizations that will resell, reuse, recycle, or repurpose them (Mass.gov, n.d.).

International Legislation

UN: 2025 International Day of Zero Waste (R3, R4, R8)

The International Day of Zero Waste in 2025 focuses on reducing waste and advancing circular solutions in the fashion and textile sector. Recommendations to achieve these goals include consumer adoption of reuse, repair, and recycling practices; a shift from fast fashion toward investing in durable, high-quality clothing; product design that considers durability, repairability, and recyclability while embracing circular business models; and government enforcement of EPR schemes, investment in recycling infrastructure, and encouragement of sustainable business models (UN, 2025).

LONG LOOPS (R8—RECYCLE, R9—RECOVER)

Long Loops for Plastics in Packaging

Plastics Europe: The Circular Economy for Plastics: A European Analysis (R8, R9)

This report provides an overview of current European plastics production, conversion into products, consumption, and waste management. Since 2018, post-consumer recycled content availability has increased by 70 percent, circular plastics now comprise 13.5 percent of all plastic resins converted into new products and components, and the recycling rate reached 26.9 percent in 2022. However, further investment in recycling infrastructure and technologies can facilitate additional chemical recycling and ensure that the demand for recycled content can be met. Other challenges include a 15 percent

increase in plastic waste incineration since 2018 and that about 25 percent of plastics are still sent to landfills (Plastics Europe, 2024).

UN Environmental Programme: Turning off the Tap: How the world can end plastic pollution and create a circular economy (R8, R9)

The UNEP report also proposed technical and policy recommendations to accelerate recycling practices, including adding design and safety standards requiring all plastic products to be reusable and recyclable, creating a common plastics labeling scheme, establishing international standards and controls for chemicals of concern, forming a common approach to setting minimum recycled content targets, setting common rules on aligning the informal waste sector with municipal solid waste management, defining common minimum standards for deposit return schemes, and establishing a common definition and rules governing conditions under which chemical recycling conversion is considered appropriate. Legacy plastic packing waste should be addressed with common definitions and standards governing end-of-life waste disposal and updated design and safety standards and EPR schemes for products that shed microplastics (UNEP, 2023).

U.S. Legislation

US House Resolution 9697: Accelerating a Circular Economy for Plastics and Recycling Innovation Act of 2024 (R8)

This proposed legislation includes the creation of national plastics recycling standards to encourage the modernization of recycling infrastructure, regulations on advanced recycling to meet requirements of the Clean Air Act, and promotion of international momentum on using advanced recycling technologies and recycled plastics in the manufacturing of plastics packaging. Status: Introduced to the House Committee on Energy and Commerce on September 19, 2024 (Bucshon, 2024).

State regulations on plastic bottle and closure manufacturing (R8)

Multiple states require plastics packaging to include recycled plastics. California required 15 percent post-consumer recycled (PCR) content in beverage containers in 2024, 25 percent in 2025, and 50 percent by 2030. Minnesota has set a goal of reducing materials disposal by 90 percent by 2045 by designing products with minimal packaging and reusing packaging at least five times before disposal. Washington passed the “Plastics Law” in 2021 that mandates 30 percent PCR content in rigid plastic containers by 2033 and shifts recycling costs from municipalities to producers through EPR schemes. New Jersey aims to align with circular economy principles outlined by the Ellen MacArthur Foundation of mandating 25 percent PCR content in beverage containers by 2030 (CSI Closures, 2025).

Oregon: Recycling Modernization Act (R8)

This legislation requires producers of covered products (e.g., packaging, paper, food service ware) to register with an approved Producer Responsibility Organization (PRO), report data to the PRO on their supply of covered products in or into the state, and pay membership fees to the PRO. Additionally, the 25 largest producers in the state by weight of covered product are required to conduct and disclose life cycle impact evaluation on 1 percent of their covered products biennially (Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, 2025).

International Legislation

European Union: European Green Deal - Deposit-Return Systems (R8)

Since 2023, 14 European countries have had a deposit return system in place for beverage packaging, mostly targeting single-use containers. Although improving recycling rates, these practices do not address waste hierarchy by design because a small minority of EU deposit systems include reusable beverage packaging in the policy framework and most systems contribute to recycling. A whole ecosystem with reusable plastics or an efficient collection and recycling network and secondary materials market with stable supply and demand can attract economic operators (ACR+, 2023).

Long Loops for Plastics in Building Materials

Stina, Inc.: Current State of U.S. Plastic Recycling (presented at the DOE Circular Economy for Plastics Workshop) (R8)

This presentation from the 2023 Circular Economy for Plastics Workshop noted that of all post-consumer non-bottle rigid plastics recovered for recycling by resin, PVC, polystyrene, low-density polyethylene, and mixed/unknown resins only accounted for 13.3 percent of non-bottle rigids (Butler, 2023).

Long Loops for Plastics in Textiles

U.S. Government Accountability Office: Textile Waste: Federal Entities Should Collaborate on Reduction and Recycling Efforts (R8)

The U.S. Government Accountability Organization reported that textile waste causes harmful effects to the environment, including the release of greenhouse gases and contaminant leaching into soil and water in landfills. EPA estimated at least a 50 percent increase in textiles disposal from 2000 to 2018 due to a shift to fast fashion business models, limited and decentralized systems for collecting and sorting textiles, and the in-

fancy of textiles recycling technologies. The overall recommendation was for Congress to provide direction to a federal entity (or entities) to coordinate and take federal action to reduce textiles waste and advance textiles recycling. Specific federal agency recommendations include establishment by the EPA, NIST, Office of Science and Technology Policy, Department of State, DOE, and the National Science Foundation of an interagency mechanism to coordinate federal efforts on textile circularity, reduce textile waste, and advance textile recycling in the United States. This mechanism should identify and involve federal participants and lead collaboration practices, including defining common outcomes and identifying data and resource needs (GAO, 2024).

Ellen MacArthur Foundation: Pushing the boundaries of EPR policy for textiles (R8)

This EMF report provides insight on current challenges in advancing textiles reuse and recycling based on modeling and analytics in Chile, EU member states, Ghana, India, Kenya, Tunisia, and the United States. Scale-up of separation and collection infrastructure for textiles could mitigate the incineration and pollution of textile wastes. Even in locations with this technology, not all textiles on the market are captured. Establishing structural funding is an important step to covering the net cost associated with managing discarded textiles. Existing EPR policies stop at the point of export, which leads to a transboundary extension as a potential solution to achieve a global circular economy for textiles. The report recommends that industries should coordinate to challenge the linear economic model by keeping products and materials in use as long as possible through voluntary business actions (e.g., voluntary EPR schemes) to create market demand for a circular economy and anticipate future policies (EMF, 2024).

National Institute of Standards and Technology: Facilitating A Circular Economy for Textiles: Workshop Report (R8)

This NIST workshop report identified current challenges to textile recycling systems, including required subsidization; no dedicated funding for scaling and recycling technologies; removing dyes, additives, and finishes from textiles; not addressing fiber blends; fiber degradation during processing; post-consumer textiles not producing high-quality recycled fiber; the intensive process requirements (e.g., high temperature, time, cost, hazardous chemicals); requirement of a pure, reliable, high-volume feedstock; separation of poly/cotton blends; no processes for certain fiber types (e.g., Nylon 6,6, elastane); and a lack of information on energy consumption and environmental impacts. Opportunities to advance recycling include the development of a post-consumer textile supply chain and domestic recycling options, advancements in component and blended fiber separation, standardized methods for removing buttons and zippers, and methods to separate cellulosic/polyester content (Schumacher & Forster, 2022).

U.S. Legislation

Washington House Bill 1420 (R8, R9)

This proposed legislation aims to establish a statewide EPR program for apparel and textile articles that emphasizes repair and ruse, minimizes hazardous waste and greenhouse gas generation, and promotes environmental justice. Status: Referred to Appropriations on February 17, 2025 (Reeves et al., 2025).

California Senate Bill 707: Responsible Textile Recovery Act of 2024 (R8, R9)

This legislation establishes an EPR program for apparel, textiles, and textile articles by creating a PRO to create a stewardship plan. It prohibits a retailer, importer, or distributor from selling, distributing, or importing covered products into the state unless the producer is listed in compliance with stewardship program requirements. Status: Approved in 2023 (Umberg, 2023).

New York Assembly Bill A8078 (R8, R9)

This proposed legislation would establish an EPR program for textiles by requiring a producer, either individually or cooperatively in a group or with a representative organization, to submit a plan to establish a collection program for textile-covered products to the Department of Environmental Conservation. Status: Referred to the Assembly Committee in 2025 (Kelles, 2023).

International Legislation

European Union Waste Framework Directive (R8, R9)

This directive requires all EU member states to establish separate textile waste collection systems by January 1, 2025. Currently, collection programs in France accept clothing, footwear, household textiles, and exclude leather products. Programs in the Netherlands accept clothing, workwear, and household textiles; footwear, blankets, belts, curtains, and headwear are excluded. Programs in Hungary accept clothing, footwear, household textiles, accessories, and carpets. Programs in Latvia accept clothing, clothing accessories, shoes, and household textiles (Lüttin, 2025).

Australia: Seamless Clothing Stewardship Scheme (R8, R9)

Australia currently administers a voluntary textile collection system and aims to achieve clothing circularity and reduce 200,000 tons of annual textile waste by 2030 (Lüttin, 2025).

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Global Plastics Policy Centre. 2023. Making reuse a reality. https://plasticspolicy.port.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Making-reuse-a-reality-report_GPPC.pdf.

Green, T. S. 2021. Complete guide to global packaging regulations & directives fighting plastic. Source Green. https://www.sourcegreen.co/plastics/global-packaging-regulations-plastic/.

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Kelles. 2023. Assembly Bill A8078 2023-2024 Legislative Session Establishes extended producer responsibility for textiles. https://www.nysenate.gov/legislation/bills/2023/A8078.

Lüttin, L. 2025. Overview of all textile extended producer responsibility (EPR) laws. Carbonfact.com. https://www.carbonfact.com/blog/policy/textile-epr-overview.

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Mena, S., Bateman, J., Reed, J., Fitzgibbon, J., Ramel, A., Peterson, S., Pollet, G., Berry, L., Walen, A., Doglio, B., Macri, N., Simmons, T., Thai, M.-L., Cortes, J., Kloba, S., and Ormsby, T. 2023. HOUSE BILL 1085 State of Washington 68th Legislature 2023 Regular Session. An act relating to reducing plastic pollution; amending RCW 70A.245.010, 43.21B.110, and 43.21B.300; adding a new section to chapter 19.27 RCW; adding new sections to chapter 70A.245 RCW; creating a new section; and prescribing penalties. https://lawfilesext.leg.wa.gov/biennium/2023-24/Pdf/Bills/House%20Bills/1085.pdf?q=20230424093006.

Merkley, J. 2023. S.3127 - Break Free From Plastic Pollution Act of 2023. https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/senate-bill/3127/text.

Paradee, T. 2023. Senate Bill 51 152nd General Assembly (2023 - 2024). An Act to Amend Title 16 of the Delaware Code Relating to the Use of Single-Service Plastic Implements and Polystyrene Containers in Food Establishments. https://legis.dela-ware.gov/BillDetail/130016.

Oregon Department of Environmental Quality. 2025. Producers of covered products: Recycling: State of Oregon. https://www.oregon.gov/deq/recycling/Pages/Producers-of-Covered-Products.aspx.

Plastics Europe. 2024. The Circular Economy for Plastics: A European Analysis. https://plasticseurope.org/knowledge-hub/the-circular-economy-for-plastics-a-europe-an-analysis-2024/.

Reeves, K., Berry, L., Mena, S., Peterson, S., Ramel, A., Doglio, B., Pollet, G., Ormsby, T., and Hill, N. 2025. HB 1420 - 2025-26. State of Washington 69th Legislature 2025 Regular Session. AN ACT Relating to establishing producer responsibility for 2 textiles; reenacting and amending RCW 43.21B.110 and 43.21B.300; 3 adding a new chapter to Title 70A RCW; and prescribing penalties. https://app.leg.wa.gov/billsummary?BillNumber=1420&Year=2025.

Schumacher, K., and Forster, A. 2022. Facilitating a Circular Economy for Textiles Workshop Report. National Institute of Standards and Technology. https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.1500-207.

Umberg, T. 2023. Responsible Textile Recovery Act of 2023. https://sjud.senate.ca.gov/sites/sjud.senate.ca.gov/files/sb_707.pdf.

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U.S. Department of Energy (U.S. DOE). 2023. Transitioning to a Sustainable Circular Economy for Plastics: Workshop Report. https://www.energy.gov/eere/bioenergy/articles/transitioning-sustainable-circular-economy-plastics-workshop-report-2023.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). 2024. National Strategy to Prevent Plastic Pollution: Part Three of a Series on Building a Circular Economy for All. https://www.epa.gov/circulareconomy/national-strategy-prevent-plastic-pollution.

U.S. Government Accountability Office (U.S. GAO). 2024. TEXTILE WASTE: Federal Entities Should Collaborate on Reduction and Recycling Efforts. GAO-25-107165. https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-25-107165.

World Economic Forum. 2024. Circular Industry Solutions for a Global Plastics Treaty. https://www.weforum.org/publications/circular-industry-solutions-for-a-global-plastics-treaty/.

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