A

Abiosignatures, 31, 67, 68

Acetate, 207, 208, 209–210, 211, 212, 283

Aconitate, 211, 212

Adenine, 91, 195, 231

Adenine–naphthalene–imide molecule, 194

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 64, 276, 281

Aerosol life, 151–153, 275

Akilia rocks, 59–60, 258

Alanine, 108–109, 168, 208

Alaska, Arctic “patterned grounds,” 22

Alberts, Bruce, 268

Allamandola, Louis, 122, 146, 148–149, 223, 262, 270

Allan Hills meteorites, 33–37, 45, 62, 70, 72–73, 254, 255

Altman, Sidney, 216–217

Aluminum, 159, 160, 162, 277

Alvin (submersible), 1, 96–97

Alzheimer’s disease, 19

Ambulocetus, 78, 79

Amherst College, 70

Amino acids, 64, 75.

See also individual amino acids

antiquity of, 131

as catalysts, 283

chirality, 167, 168, 172, 176, 181, 183, 277

in hydrothermal environments, 98, 108–111, 115, 264, 269

long-chain, 117, 135

macromolecule formation, 156

and metabolic protolife, 199, 200, 201, 202, 210

from meteorites, 123–124, 271, 274, 277

Miller–Urey experiment, 86–90, 91, 93, 112, 262, 263

mineral bonding to, 115–116, 268

peptide formation, 117, 124, 194, 222

polymerization on mineral surfaces, 157, 158, 199, 207

racemization, 181, 278

sample preparation, 183–184

Strecker synthesis, 91

thioester bonding, 202

from ultracold reactions, 92

Ammonia, 87, 89, 91, 92, 93, 108, 115, 118, 134, 205, 208, 261, 262

Ant colonies, 12, 13, 14, 15, 19, 20

Antarctic Search for Meteorites program, 254

Anthracene, 69–71

Antibody tests for microbe fossils, 74–75

Apatite, 59

Apex Chert fossils, xi, 39–45, 55, 56, 255

Arabinose, 136

Archaea, 139–141

Archean eon, 39, 189, 262, 264, 275, 276

Aristotle, 83

Armstrong, Karen, 129, 272

Arrhenius, Gustaf, 159–160, 252, 258, 262, 267

Artificial intelligence, 27

Artificially Expanded Genetic Information System (AEGIS), 287

Aspartic acid, 176–185

Asteroids, 31–32, 36, 105, 123–124, 139, 141, 253–254

Atmospheric aerosols, 151–153, 275

Australian Centre for Astrobiology, 55, 56

Australian Geological Survey Organisation, 65

Australian National University, 146

Autocatalytic

cycle, 202

networks, 197–198, 280

vesicles, 144

Autotrophic life, 112, 139, 141, 205–206, 281, 282

Awramik, Stan, 256

B

Bacteria, x.

See also Microbes

genetic engineering, 136–137

magnetotactic, 35, 36

organic molecules in E. coli, 272

photosynthesizing, 55, 67;

see also Cyanobacteria

phylogenetic analysis, 139–140

testing fossils for, 40

Bada, Jeffrey, 87, 107, 109–110, 113, 262, 271, 278–279

Bak, Per, 16

Bangham, Alex, 144, 146

Barbrook, Adrian, 137

Baross, John, 97–98, 99, 264

Bartel, David, 238

Basilosaurus, 78, 79

Behe, Michael, 80

Belousov–Zhabotinski systems, 248

Bénard cells, 248

Benner, Steven, 261

Bernal, John Desmond, 157, 276

Bernstein, Max, 223, 287–288

Biofilms, x, 72.

See also Flat life

Biomolecules

antibodies, 74

antiquity of, 131

assembly, 1, 62, 110–111, 127, 167;

see also Macromolecules

from asteroid, meteor, or comet impact, 123–124, 271

emergence of, 81–127

essential elements, 85

evolution, 81, 113, 117–118

handedness, 64, 136;

see also Chirality and chiral molecules

hydrocarbons, 61–62, 64

hydrothermal origins and, 110–111

from igneous rock, 124–126

key compounds, 134–135, 153, 208

Miller–Urey experiment, 86–90, 91, 93

minimal concentration, 19

modular design, 134

multiple-source hypothesis, 127, 272

number of compounds, 61, 110–111

polycyclic carbon compounds, 62–63, 64, 65–67, 69–71

productive environments, 121–127

self-organization, 81, 86, 117, 142, 170

self-replicating, 86, 169, 172

signatures of life, 64, 65–67

space origins, 121–123

stability, 64, 68, 71

sterols, 63–64, 65, 68, 70, 75

synthesis pathways, 63–64, 86–90, 91, 210

ultracold environments, 92, 122–123

Biosignatures

anthracene:phenanthrene ratio, 69–71

C-12:C-13 isotope ratio, 53–59, 67–68, 258

hopanes, 65–67, 68

ideal characteristics, 68

molecular, 64, 65–71

oldest markers, 66–67

Biosphere 2, 99

Black chert fossils, 39, 43, 49, 51, 55–56

Blank, Jennifer, 123–124

Blue marl, 17–18

BOIDS program, 15, 249

Bovine serum albumin (BSA), 74

Boyce, Kevin, 51, 53

Brain, human, 14, 20–21.

See also Consciousness

Brandes, Jay, 115

Brasier, Martin, xi, 40–44, 256, 257

Briggs, Derek, 257

British Nuclear Fuels Ltd., 72

Burgess Shale, 54, 70, 257

C

Cairns-Smith, A. G. (Graham), 160–164, 171, 216, 249, 276–277

Calcite, 174–186

Calcium, 151, 159

California Institute of Technology, 126, 199

Calvert Cliffs Miocene formations, 17–18, 250

Cambridge University, 137, 146

The Canterbury Tales, 137–138, 273

Carbohydrates, 96, 135, 153, 156, 202

Carbon. See also individual compounds

Akilia rock formation, 59–60

biogenic coals, 70, 258

biomolecular assembly, 1, 131

C-12:C-13 ratio, 53–59, 67–68, 257, 258

electron microprobe analysis of fossils, 49–53

Fischer–Tropsch synthesis, 43, 118

fixation, 117–119

in hydrothermal conditions, 3–8

inorganic vs. organic, 42–43, 131, 135–136

isotope analysis, 53–59, 257

mapping fossils, 49–53, 55, 257

polycyclic compounds, 62–63, 64, 65–67, 69–71

Raman spectroscopy, 43

Carbon dioxide, 3, 93, 108, 110–111, 117, 118, 205, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 262

Carbon monoxide, 113, 118, 122, 148

Carbonate minerals, 34–35, 36, 54

Carboxylic acids, 125–126

Carnegie Institution Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, 179–180

Carnegie Institution Geophysical Laboratory, xii, 2, 90, 108

carbon isotope analysis, 56–57

detector for Martian life, 75

electron microprobe analysis of fossils, 49–52

gold-tube experiments, 4–6, 108, 118, 207, 211

lecturers, 104–105, 114, 256

work environment, 73

Catalysts, 3

amino acids as, 283

enzymes, 210

minerals as, 118–119

small molecule, 283

Catastrophists, 28, 253

Cech, Thomas, 216–217

Cellular life, 131, 152, 189, 239, 253

Cellulose, 273

Center for Radiophysics and Space Research, 102

Central European University, 99

Cerion (Bahamian land snail), 181–182, 185–186

Chance versus necessity, xiii–xiv, 191, 247

Chaucer, Geoffrey, 137, 138

Chemolithoautotroph, 282

Chirality and chiral molecules

amino acids, 167, 168, 172, 176, 181, 183, 277

beta decay events and, 168, 278

calcite–amino acid experiments, 176–186

chromatographic analysis, 177–179

dating applications, 181, 182

D:L ratios, 167, 170–171, 177–178, 181–182, 184, 277

local symmetry breaking and, 168, 169–172, 278

magnetic fields and, 223, 278

on mineral surfaces, 171–186

and pharmaceutical properties, 168–169, 185

polymers, 171

racemization and, 181

selection experiments, 174–186

selection process, 168

separating left- and right-handed molecules, 173–174

sugars, 167, 168

Cholesterol, 63, 64

Chromium, 159

Chromosome synthesis, 237, 289

Chyba, Christopher, 30

Citrate, 218

Citric acid cycle, 64, 141, 192, 208, 209, 216, 218, 219, 283

Clay

amino acid polymerization on, 157, 165, 276

as catalyst, 239, 286

chemical composition, 162

experiments, 157–158, 276

RNA encapsulation, 158, 276

as scaffolds for organic compounds, 155, 157–158, 161, 163–164, 286

self-replication, 162–163, 165

surface electrostatic charge, 157, 161, 163

Clay life

“crystal genes,” 161–162, 164, 165

evolution and natural selection, 160–161, 163, 164

experiments, 157–158, 276

hypothesis, 160–164, 276–277

testable features of, 164–165

Cleland, Carol, 30

Climate change, 181

Clinton administration, 34, 254

CO dehydrogenase, 284

Cobalt sulfides, 118, 207

Cody, George, 7, 8, 9, 69, 70, 107, 109, 126, 211, 212, 223, 229

Coenzymes, 218, 285

Cold. See Ultracold vacuum experiments

Collagen, 116, 269

Comets, x, 31–32, 36, 270

Competition, 235–240.

See also Evolution;

Molecular evolution

autocatalytic networks, 16, 197–198, 280

Complex emergent systems. See also Metabolic protolife

biomolecules, 81–127

chemical, 16, 28, 192

climate and, 91–92

competition and, 249

concentration of agents, 17–19, 22, 142, 198, 250–251

consciousness, 12, 15, 19, 20–21, 291

cycling of energy flows, 21–23, 64, 141, 157, 192, 198, 200, 251–252, 289

describing, 13–14, 249

development, 249

energy flows through, 12–13, 14–15, 20–21, 93, 248, 251–252

evolution, 249

examples, 12–14, 15, 251

interconnectivity of agents, 13, 19–20, 22, 251

mathematical modeling, 14–16, 22–23

and natural laws, 80

nonextensive entropy, 16

patterns of behavior in, 13, 14, 16–22, 201, 248, 249, 251

predictability, 245

self-criticality, 16

simulations, 15

Consciousness, emergence of, 12, 15, 19, 20–21, 291

Conservation of energy, law of, 11

Contamination

in chiral-selection experiments, 176, 179

of meteorites, 36–37, 72

tracers, for rock samples, 66

ubiquitousness of, 126, 176, 272

ultraclean-facility precautions, 179–188

Continuity, principle of, 113, 199, 200, 216, 280

Copper sulfides, 118

Corliss, Jack, 1, 2, 96–99, 263

Cornell University, 102, 103

Creationism, 77, 78, 80, 233

Crick, Francis, 194, 196

Crystals

attraction of chiral molecules to chiral surfaces, 174–186

formation process, 170

Cyanic acid, 134

Cyanobacteria, 39, 40, 42, 44, 67, 256, 259

Cyclical processes, 21–22, 92, 142, 157, 199–200, 234, 236, 238, 251, 289

Cytosine, 195

D

Dala Deep Gas, 104

Dana, Edward, 174

Darwin, Charles, 77–78, 85, 86, 152, 260, 282

Davies, Paul C. W., 251

de Duve, Christian, 201–203, 216

Deamer, David, 143, 146–151, 152, 193, 228, 231, 232, 239, 274–275, 289, 290

Deep hot biosphere, 102–105

Deep life, 96–106.

See also Hydrothermal-origins hypothesis;

Undersea volcanic vents

discovery of, 95

groundwater ecosystems, 101–102

reproduction and growth rates, 102

Defining life

bottom-up approach, 26–27, 49, 76

emergence and, 28–31

ethical issues, 26

experimental strategy, 31–32

fundamental attributes, 189

NASA’s working definition, 27

scientific efforts, 25, 26–28

subjectiveness in, 29

theological and philosophical debates, 25–26, 27

top-down approach, 26, 37, 49, 64, 67, 216, 219, 252

water characterization analogy, 30

Dembski, William, 80

Deoxyribose, 64, 135.

See also DNA

Department of Energy (U.S.), 100

Deuterium, 261

Development, 249

DNA, 75

biosynthesis pathways, 64, 91

evolution, 216

highly conserved sequences, 137

palindromic strands, 195–196

protein interdependence, 216

replication, 217

self-complementary strands, 194–197

structure, 135, 136, 160, 194–195

swapping by microbes, 141

Dobson, Christopher, 151–153

Doudna, Jennifer, 237, 289–290

Drug design, 168–169, 185, 194

Dual-origins model, 243, 291

Dunham, Rachel, 70

Dyson, Freeman, 191

E

Earth, prebiotic, x, 70, 87–90

atmosphere, 67, 87, 92–93, 189, 261, 262–263

climate, 91–92, 188

formation, 38

and metabolic protolife, 199, 200, 201

meteorite/asteroid impacts, 99, 104, 105, 139, 189, 253, 255, 271

ocean, 93, 98–99, 141–142, 275

reverse cytric acid cycle, 210

East Driefontein Mine, 101–102

East Pacific Rise, 97

Eciton burchelli (army ant), 19

Emergence

of biomolecules, 81–127

common characteristics, 14–15

of complexity;

see Complex emergent systems

concept, ix–x

crystal nucleation analogy, 170

“law of,” 11–23

and origin of life, xi, 28–31, 38

sequence of events, 28–29, 31

vesicles, ix–x, xi, 143–151, 238–240

Energy sources, life-triggering

asteroid impacts, 85

chemical, 85, 91, 107, 198, 201–202, 206

extremophile microbes as producers, 97

geothermal, 85, 191

lightning, 81, 85, 87–89, 93, 105, 107, 112, 273

mineral surfaces, 105, 111, 112, 113

photosynthesis, 96, 112, 198

solar radiation, 81, 85, 86, 91, 93, 95, 96, 105, 112, 191, 198

Enspel Shale, 70, 73

Entropy

nonextensive, 16

thermodynamic law of, 11–12, 14, 21, 246

Enzymes, 210

Equilibrium, 13

Eschenmoser, Albert, 171, 221, 287

Escherichia coli, 235–236, 272

Eukaryotes, 139, 140

Europa (moon), 106

Evolution, clay, 160–161, 163, 164

Evolution by natural selection, 27, 28.

See also Molecular evolution

at cellular level, 290

last common ancestor, 139, 273, 274

missing links, 77–80, 259–260

opposition to theory of, 77, 78, 80, 233, 289

pace of, 189

random variation, 280

Extraterrestrial life, 27

abiomarkers, 31, 67, 68

alternative biochemistry for, 261

emergence of, 31–32, 105–106

Extremophiles, 97–98, 99, 139, 264–265, 266, 273

F

Fatty acid synthase, 62

Fedo, Christopher, 60

Feldspars, 156

Ferris, James, 157–158, 159, 171, 222, 239, 262, 270, 275, 276

Ferrodoxins, 284

Filley, Rose, 177, 178, 179

Filley, Tim, 176, 177, 178, 179

Finding Nemo (film), 15

Fischer–Tropsch synthesis, 43, 118, 258, 269

Flat life, 28, 191, 213–214, 284

Fogel, Marilyn, 56, 58, 223

Food and Drug Administration, 168

Formaldehyde, 91, 285

Formic acid, 206, 284

Formose reaction, 285

Fossils

Allan Hills meteorite, 33–37

amino acid D:L ratio, 181

antibody tests for, 74–75

Apex Chert controversy, xi, 37-45, 255

atoms, 47–53

biochemical pathways as, 192, 198

bones, 116, 181, 268, 269

Burgess Shale, 54

carbon isotope analysis, 53–59

carbon mapping, 50–53

coal, 54

contamination of, 66

electron microprobe analysis, 49–53, 257

field testing for, 74–75

hydrothermal sites, 41

Isuaphaera, 258

Laser-Raman imaging, 41–42

microbes, 35, 36, 37-45, 48–49, 65, 72, 74–75, 98, 257

oldest, 38, 39-45, 55, 59–60, 255, 256, 258

Rhynie, Scotland plants, 51

sample extraction, 58, 66

three-dimensional imaging, 40–41

Fox, Sidney, 199–201, 280, 281

Freund, Friedemann, 124–126, 271–272

Friese, Mark, 73

Fructose, 135

Fujikawa, Shelly, 239

G

Galap‡gos Islands, 97

Gamow, George, 286

Garnet, 174

Gas chromatography, 7, 124

Gee, Harry, 42

Gell-Mann, Murray, 16

Genetic engineering, 136–137

Genetic protolife, 112, 192

amino acids and, 215–216

catalyst, 216–217

Clay World and, 158, 242

competition, 232

continuity in, 216

critcisms of, 216

encapsulation, 158, 242

molecular phylogeny and, 141

precursors, xi, 191, 221–222, 287;

see also PAH World

and reproduction, 191, 215

RNA World, 27, 112, 141, 216–218, 242

self-replicating peptide, 194, 215, 232

test of, 242

Genetics. See also DNA;

RNA

defined, 191

metabolism linked to, 191–192, 197, 200–201, 217, 218–219, 290–291

synthetic molecules, 221–222

Geophysical Laboratory. See Carnegie Institution

George Mason University, 1, 3, 208

George Washington University, 60, 180, 181, 182–183

Ghadiri, Reza, 194

Giant gas gun experiments, 123–124

Gilbert, Walter, 285

Gish, Duane, 260

Glucose, 3, 64, 135

Glutamic acid, 185

Glycine, 89, 117, 262

Glycolysis, 64

God, 77–80, 85, 93, 129

Gold, Thomas, 102–105, 107, 118, 127, 130, 265

Goldschmidt, Victor M., 167, 276

Goodfriend, Glenn, 180–185, 186, 278–279

Gordon Research Conferences, 48, 49

Gould, Stephen J., xi, xii, 54, 181–182, 185–186, 279

“Grand Unified Theory of Biology,” 209

Graphite, 229

Gravity, 12, 251

Greenberg, Mayo, 270

Greenland, Akilia rock formation, 59–60

Greigite, 284

Guanine, 91, 195, 231

H

Hadean eon, 38, 255

Hadidiacos, Christos, 50–51, 52

Haldane, J. B. S., 86, 261, 282

Hall, Allan, 213, 284

Hanczyk, Martin, 239

Hansen, Jonas Lundbek, 21

Hanson, R. Brooks, 254

Hare, Ed, 278–279

Harvard University, 48, 49, 158, 181, 237

Haywood, Alan, 77

Heinen, Wolfgang, 207

Helium, 103

Heterotrophic life, 112, 141, 202, 205, 281–282

Hexabenzocoronene, 230, 288

High-resolution transmission electron microscopy, 165

High temperature, high pressure environments. See also Hydrothermal-origins hypothesis

amino acid stability in, 109–111, 117

carbon deposits, 60

citric acid degradation in, 211–212

flat life in, 213–214

gold-bag experiments, 116–117

gold-tube experiments, 4–6, 108, 118, 207, 211

iron sulfide experiments, 207

minerals as catalysts, 118–119, 207

thioesters, 281

Hoffman, Sarah, 98, 99, 263–264

Hofmeister, Anne, 125, 126

Holland, John, 11, 15

Homochirality, 167, 170, 185, 223.

See also Chirality and chiral molecules

Hooker, Joseph, 85

Hopanes

antibodies, 74–75

biosignatures, 65–67, 68, 70

discovery, 259

Howe, Christopher, 137

Humpane, 7–8, 248

Huntress, Wes, 73, 124

Hydrocarbons. See also individual compounds

biomolecules, 61–62, 64

from living cells vs. nonbiological processes, 61–62

membrane-forming, 91

primordial, 103, 131

and zeolite channels, 160

Hydrogen cyanide, 91, 92, 262

Hydrogen gas, 87, 89, 92, 113, 206, 207, 262

Hydrogen sulfide, 205, 206, 207, 210, 211, 212, 242

Hydrothermal-origins hypothesis

amino acid stability, 98, 108–109, 110, 115, 117

and biomolecule range, 110

carbon fixation, 8, 117–119

credit for, 98

criticisms of, 109–110, 115

energy source, 97, 105, 111, 114, 115–117

experiments, 4–6, 108–111, 115–117, 118

and extraterrestrial life, 105–106

Fischer–Tropsch synthesis, 118

iron–sulfur minerals and, 111, 114, 118–119

lipid self-organization, 149–151

and macromolecular formation, 93, 98, 105, 118, 139

pyruvate experiments, 3–8, 108, 110, 149–151

Hydroxides, 158, 159–160

Hydroxyapatite, 268, 276

I

Igneous rock, as biomolecule source, 124–126

Imidazole, 157

Imide, 194

Impacts, 33, 38, 104, 123–124, 141, 271

Institute of Molecular Evolution, 200

Intelligent design, 80, 233

Interstellar clouds, 122–123, 269–270

Iron carbonate, 258

Iron complexes, 119, 159, 162, 282

Iron sulfides, 111, 113, 118, 206, 207

Iron–Sulfur World, 203

assumptions, 112–113

autotrophic metabolism, 205–206, 241, 281–282

criticisms of, 113–114, 215, 284

energy source, 112, 114, 206–207

experimental verification, 207, 211–212, 267, 284

flat life, 213–214, 284

hydrothermal vent minerals and, 206–207, 283

Popperian philosophy and, 111, 266–267

rate of emergent process, 113, 267

reverse citric acid cycle, 208–211, 242, 268, 283

testability, 113, 114

Isoprene, 63–64

Isotopes, 53–59, 257, 258

Isua rocks, 258

J

Johnson Space Center, 72, 73

Joyce, Gerald, 27, 215, 230

Jurassic Park (film), 15

K

Kauffman, Stuart, 16, 25, 196–198, 241, 280

Kerogen, 274

Kessler, Mark, 22

Knoll, Andrew, 48–49, 51, 55, 230

Korenowski, Gerry, 232

L

Lahav, Noam, 61, 157, 267

Lauwers, Anne Marie, 207

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 123

Lazcano, Antonio, 113

Lemke, Kono, 116, 117

Lerman, Louis, 152, 275

Leucine, 115

Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 28, 253

Life. See also Defining life;

Extraterrestrial life;

Flat life;

Synthetic life

antiquity of, 37–45, 59, 66–67, 253, 258

carbon isotope signature, 54, 57, 58

as chance event vs. cosmic imperative, xiii, 191, 247, 257

characteristics of, 28–29

chemical interactions, 20

complexity, 12, 20

first life-form on Earth, 27–28, 239

meaning and value of, 246

raw materials for, 81, 85

standards of proof, 34–36, 39, 257, 279

temperature limits, 41

window for emergence, 38, 253

Lightman, Alan, 33

Lightning, 81, 85, 112, 127, 155, 157, 273

Limestone, 54

Limonene, 168

Lindsay, John, 41, 256

Lipid World scenario, 144–145, 239

Lipids, amphiphilic, 135, 213

aerosol life, 151–153

bilayer structure, 144, 145, 148, 150, 152, 156

building blocks, 208

coenzymes and, 218

extraction and analytical procedures, 147–148, 150

hydrothermal conditions, 149–151

Murchison meteorite sample, 145–148

RNA encapsulation, 158, 217, 218, 238–239

seawater minerals and, 150

self-replication, 144

self-organization, 143–145, 148, 149–153, 156

ultracold vacuum experiments, 148–149

Löb, Walter, 90, 262

Logos, 129–130, 272

Lowell, James Russell, 245, 291

Lowell, Percival, 71

Luisi, Pier Luigi, 144, 239, 290

Lyxose, 136

M

Macquarie University, 55

Macromolecules, 93, 105.

See also Lipids

abiotic formation, 284

assembly, 131, 133, 135, 153, 155–156, 185, 189

building blocks, 133, 153

chiral selectivity and, 185

Miller–Urey process and, 155–156

minerals as protection, 156

production steps, 156

synthesis of, 161, 263

in water, 153, 156

Magnesium, 151, 159, 162

Magnesium oxide crystal model system, 125–126, 271

Magnetite, 35, 36, 255

Magnetotactic bacteria, 35, 36

Malate, 208

Mandelbrot set, 249

Mars

atmosphere, 36

“canals,” 71

chemical analyzer, 72

detecting life on, 33-37, 67, 71–75, 254, 257, 259

meteorites from, 33-37, 45, 62, 67, 69–70, 71, 253–254, 257

Noachian epoch, 71

sample return mission, 67, 75

surface water, 71

Viking mission, 71, 259

Mass spectrometry, 7, 57–58, 68, 124

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 59, 238, 279

Mathematica, 15

Maule, Jake, 73, 74, 75

McKay, David, 34, 72, 254

Melosh, Jay, 253–254

Membranes, 27, 112, 131, 135, 152, 191, 193.

See also Lipids

clay, 158, 276

encapsulation of metabolic protolife, 193, 199–200, 213

iron sulfide bubble, 213

RNA encapsulation, 158, 217, 218, 238–239, 290

Merton, Alan, 268

Metabolic protolife, 27

amino acids and, 91, 199, 200, 202

autocatalytic networks, 197–198, 202, 267

autotrophic, 205, 241, 281

citric acid cycle, 64, 141, 192, 208, 209, 216, 219, 242

continuity in, 192, 200, 202, 216, 280

credit for idea, 267

cross-catalytic systems, 196–197

cyclical processes, 64, 141, 192, 198, 200

encapsulation, 193, 199–200, 213, 290–291

energy sources, 21, 64, 96, 198, 201–202

environment and, 198, 200, 201

evolution of, 198

fossil biochemical pathways, 192

genetics linked to, 191–192, 198, 200–201, 217, 218–219, 241, 290–291

heterotrophic, 112, 141, 202, 205

hydrothermal origin of, 3–4

Iron–Sulfur World, 112–113, 192, 203, 241–242, 281

laboratory experiments, 198

principles, 191, 198

Protenoid World, 199–201

pyruvate and, 3–4

reverse citric acid cycle, 208–211

self-assembly of macromolecules, 202, 219

self-replication, 193–198, 200, 207, 208, 218

test of, 242

Thioester World, 201–203

Meteorites

Allan Hills, 33-37, 45, 62, 70, 72–73, 254, 255

amino acids, 123–124, 271, 274, 277

biomolecules from, 123, 270, 274

carbonaceous chondrites, 69–70, 123, 146, 255

contamination, 36–37, 72

Hadean eon, 38

lipid molecules in, 146–148, 152, 274

microbial transfer from Earth to space, 254

Murchison, 69–70, 123, 146–147, 150, 152, 271, 274

PAH ratios, 70, 255

Methane, 87, 89, 92, 93, 103, 104, 262

Methyl acrylic acid, 284

2-Methylhopanoid, 67, 259

Mica, 174

Microarray Assay for Solar System Exploration (MASSE), 75, 259

Microbes. See also Bacteria

antiquity of, 189

asteroid impacts and, 253–254

DNA swapping, 141

as energy source, 97–98, 99

extremophiles, 97–98, 99, 264–266, 273

fossils, 35, 36, 37–45, 48–49, 65, 72, 74–75, 255, 256, 257

genome sequencing, 138

magnetite crystals and, 255

in meteorites, 35, 254

mining for, 101–102

oil-from-below hypothesis, 103–105, 265

reverse citric acid cycle, 208

in rocks, 100–101, 254

Savannah River core samples, 100, 265

and spontaneous generation theory, 84–85

testing hypotheses, 164–165

Microscope, 83, 260

Microspheres, 200, 281

Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 97

Miller, Charles, 98

Miller, Stanley L., 81, 83, 86–90, 91, 92, 98, 107, 109, 115, 130, 141, 147, 187, 199, 200, 221, 262, 263

Miller–Urey experiment, 86–90, 91, 93, 109, 112, 131, 135, 146, 155–156, 217, 219, 223–224, 262, 273

“Millerites” and “Miller lites,” 266

Minerals. See also Clay life;

other specific minerals

bonding to amino acids, 115–116, 268

carbonate, 34–35, 36, 54

as catalysts, 118–119, 159–160, 171, 207, 210

as cell walls, 160

chiral surfaces, 171–186

double-layer hydroxides, 159–160

at hydrothermal vents, 111, 114, 118–119, 206, 207

polymerization on, 157, 158, 199, 207

as protection for protolife, 156, 275

as scaffolding for life, 155, 156–158, 162

in seawater, 150

selection of molecules, 173, 234

and self-organization, 150, 171

surfaces as energy sources, 105, 111, 112, 113

surfaces as genetic sequence, 162

Mojzsis, Stephen J., 59, 258

Molecular evolution, 28

autocatalytic systems, 197, 280

biomolecules, 81, 113

competition and, 29, 210, 236–237, 239, 249

complex emergent systems, 248

laboratory experiments, 235–240

molecular selection and, 234–237

phylogenetic analysis, 136–141, 264

RNA, 235–236

self-replication, 234–240

synthetic life, 238–240

Molecular “fossils,” 3

Molecular selection

chirality, 168, 169, 174–186

by minerals, 173, 234

and molecular evolution, 234–235

in PAH World, 225, 228

process, 168

in space, 169

Morgan, Stanley Hunt, 199

Morowitz, Harold, 1, 2–4, 8, 28, 107, 192, 208, 209, 210, 268, 283

The Mummy (film), 15

Murray, Andrew, 237

Myths, 129–130, 253, 272

N

Naphthalene, 194

NASA Ames Research Center, 42, 121–122, 146, 148, 150, 223

Astrobiology Science Conferences, 42, 188, 256, 275

National Academy of Sciences, 102

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

Allan Hills meteorite, 34–37

Astrobiology Institute support for research, 55, 108, 116, 157, 159, 232, 266

definition of life, 27

Exobiology program, 200

Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, 72

Mars exploration, 71–72, 75

Office of Space Science, 73

Specialized Center of Research and Training, 276

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 151–152

National Science Foundation, 181

Natural history, religious vs. scientific interpretation, 28, 77–80, 129–130, 233–234

Natural selection, 160–161, 163, 164, 233–240, 280

Nealson, Kenneth, 121

Needham, John, 84

Neptunists, 28

Neutron stars, 169, 278

New England College, 48

Newton’s laws of motion, 12, 57

Nickel, 159

Nickel sulfide, 111, 118, 207, 212, 284

Niels Bohr Institute, 21

Nielsen, Peter, 222

Nielsen-Marsh, Christine, 268

Nitrogen

atmosphere, 93, 108, 110–111, 262

chemistry at hydrothermal vents, 115

isotopes, 56

1-Nonene, 284

Nuclear reactors, microbial corrosion, 72

Nucleation, 170

Nucleic acids, 213.

See also DNA;

RNA

Nucleotides, 135, 153, 157, 158, 284

O

Occam’s razor, 257

Oceanologica Acta (journal), 99

Ohmoto, Hiroshi, 262

Oil-from-below hypothesis, 103–105, 118

Oil-slick hypothesis, 157, 275–276

Olivine, 126, 174, 271

Onstott, Tullis, 101

Oparin, Alexander, 86, 260, 261, 269, 282

Oregon State University, 1, 96, 97–98, 109

Orgel, Leslie, 91–92, 158, 159, 171, 230, 263, 272, 283, 284, 286

Oró, John, 91

Osteocalcin, 116, 268, 269

Ourisson, Guy, 259

Oxalic acid dihydrate, 5

Oxaloacetate, 3, 7, 8, 208, 209–210, 211, 212, 218, 242, 283, 284

Oxford University, 73, 151

Oxygen, 160

P

Packer, Bonnie, 40, 256

PAH World

amino acid bases, 230–231

comments of, 225, 228–230

energy source, 224

experimental support, 225, 228, 229, 230–232

hypothesis, 223–225, 226–227

molecular selection, 225, 228

publication, 228–229, 230, 231

self-organization, 224–227, 228, 229, 242

thesis defense, 231–232

PAHs. See Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Paper chromatography, 89

Parity principle, 169, 278

Pashley, Richard, 146–148

Pasteur, Louis, 84–85, 145–146, 169, 170–171, 260

Pasteurization, 85

Pennsylvania State University, 262

Peptide nucleic acid (PNA), 222, 232, 287

Peptides

formation, 117, 124, 194, 222

self-replicating, 194

Petroleum, abiotic formation, 103–105, 118, 265

Pflug, Hans-Dieter, 258

Phenanthrene, 69–71

Philosophy of science, 111

Phospholipid molecules, 143

Photosynthesis, 39, 40, 42, 44, 55, 64, 67, 96, 105, 112, 198, 210

Phylogenetic analysis, 137–141, 264

Pilbara Craton, 66

Platts, Simon Nicholas (Nick), xi, 221, 222–232, 287–289

Plutonists, 28

PNA. See Peptide nucleic acid

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

amphilic character, 148, 224

base spacing, 225, 228, 230–231

biomarker and abiomarker ratios, 69–71

in deep space, 36, 223, 259

discotic organization, 224–227, 228, 229, 230

encapsulation, 289

functionalized, 224, 232, 289;

see also PAH World

identification, 259

in meteorites, 34, 62, 255

and photosynthesis, 232

sources, 288

structures, 224, 288

synthesis and purification, 231

ubiquitousness, 62, 224, 255

UV radiation and, 224

Polymerization on the rocks, 156–158, 160

Popper, Karl, 111, 164, 266–267

Portsmouth University, 73

Prebiotic chemistry

atmospheric, 92–93

criticisms of, 114, 206

early speculation about, 85–86

at hydrothermal vents, 115, 247–248

Miller–Urey experiment, 86–90, 92, 93

oceanic, 93, 98–99

spontaneous generation theory, 83–84

ultracold reactions, 91–92

variations on Miller–Urey, 90–93

Pre-RNA World. See PAH World

Prigogine, Ilya, 12, 248

“Primordial soup” hypothesis, 2, 86, 112, 114, 130, 141–142, 202, 267.

See also Miller–Urey experiment

Prokaryotes, 138–139

Proline, 283

Propene, 284

Proteins, 64, 75, 135, 153, 156, 194, 199, 216, 217

Protenoid World, 199–201

Protenoids, 199, 200, 281

Proto-planetary nebulae, 270

Pseudoscience, 111

Pulsars, 102

Purdue University, 176

Pyranosyls, 287

Pyrene, 71

Pyrite, 113, 174, 206, 207, 210, 282, 283, 284

Pyrrhotite, 35, 113, 115, 206

Pyruvate, 3–8, 108, 207, 208, 211, 283

Q

Qβ virus, 235–236

Quartz, 171, 172

R

Radioactive beta decay, 169

Rebek, Julius, Jr., 194, 279

Reductionism, ix

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 157, 222, 232, 239, 262, 276

Reproduction, 189, 191.

See also Self-replication

Reverse citric acid cycle, 208–212, 268, 283

Reynolds, Craig, 15

Ribose, 64, 91, 135, 136, 221, 262, 285, 286.

See also RNA

Ribosomes, 217–218

Ribozymes, 216–217, 237, 289–290

RNA

amphiphilicity, 225

antiquity of, 218

bases, 225, 231, 255

biochemical synthesis pathways, 64, 91, 218–219

as catalyst and information carrier, 216, 217, 218, 237

clays as scaffolding for, 157–158

encapsulation, 158, 217, 218, 238–239, 290

molecular selection experiments, 235–236, 237–238

nucleotide synthesis, 219, 285–286

precursor polymers, 221, 287;

see also PAH World

protein assembly, 218

replicase, 237

riboswitches, 218

ribozymes, 216–217, 237, 285

self-replicating, 112, 217, 221, 236–240

specialized, 238

Spiegelman monsters, 235–236

structure, 135, 160, 171

synthetic organisms, 240

variants, 221–222

RNA World hypothesis, 27, 112, 141, 216–218, 219, 221, 240, 285

Rodhocetus, 78, 79

Ross, David, 116, 117, 269

Rossman, George, 126

Royal Society of London, 102

Rubin, Vera, 251

Runnegar, Bruce, 256, 258, 259, 269, 273

Russell, Michael, 213, 284

S

Sagan, Carl, 35, 233

Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 91, 158

Sand patterns, 12, 14, 15, 16–22, 249

Santa Fe Institute, 15, 16, 196

Savannah River nuclear processing facility, 100, 265

Schidlowski, Manfred, 258

Schopf, J. William, xi, 37, 39–44, 56, 256, 257

Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 59, 107, 159, 276

Scripps Research Institute, 27, 194

Seager, Sara, 187

Self-complementary molecules, 194–196, 279

Self-organization

in aerosols, 151–153

of biomolecules, 81, 86, 117, 142, 170

clays and, 157–158

crystal nucleation, 170

energy input, x

experiments, 144

lipid membranes, 143–145, 148, 149–153, 156

macromolecules, 202, 219

metabolic networks, 283

multimers, 202

PAH World, 224–227, 228, 229, 242

RNA-containing vesicles, 158, 242

seawater minerals and, 150

spontaneous, x, xi, 144, 149, 156, 202

into surface life, 142

vesicles, 144, 149

Self-replication

autocatalytic molecules, 29, 193–194

biomolecules, 86, 169, 172

citric acid cycle, 212

clay life, 162–163, 165

competition and, 234–235

cross-catalytic systems, 196–197

DNA strands, 194–196

emergence, 234–235

flat life, 213–214

lipids, 144

by metabolic protolife, 193–198, 200, 206, 207, 208, 212

peptides, 194, 215, 232

polymers, 263

reverse citric acid cycle, 208

RNA molecule, 112, 217, 221, 236–240

self-complementary molecules, 194–196, 279

test-tube experiments, 190

SETI Institute, 30

Shale fossils, 49

Shock, Everett, 247–248, 282

Silicon, 160

Siljan Ring, 104

Simpson, Sarah, 47

Singer, Maxine, 268

Smith, John Maynard, 25, 280

Smith, Joseph V., 156, 160, 276

Solar radiation, 81, 85, 105, 198, 224

South African sandstones, 54

Space

biomolecular diversity, 122–123, 269–270, 271

chiral-selection process in, 169

membranes from, 145–147

molecular clouds, 121–123, 269–271

Spallanzani, Lazzaro, 84

Spiegelman, Sol, 235–236

Spiral galaxies, 12, 19, 251

Spontaneous generation, theory of, 83–85, 144–145, 260

Squalene, 63–64

Stanford University, 152

Steele, Andrew, 72–73, 75, 116, 259

Sterols, 63–64, 65, 68, 70, 75

Stewart, Potter, 25, 252

Strecker synthesis, 91

Strelley Pool Chert, 55–59

Sucrose, 135

Sugar phosphates, 160, 171, 222

Sugars, 96, 131, 135, 136, 156, 167, 176, 210, 263, 273

Sulfur, 274.

See also Iron–Sulfur World

Summons, Roger, 58–59, 65–67

Surface origin of life

flat life, 28, 191

mineral surfaces, 142, 157, 158

at ocean–atmosphere interface, 86–90, 91, 93, 109, 142, 156–157, 274–276

on rocks, 157

Sweden

Museum of Natural History, 60

State Power Board, 104

Synthetic life, 238–240, 290

Szostak, Jack, 158, 230, 237, 238, 240, 248, 249, 252, 253, 255, 276, 285, 287, 289–291

T

Tartaric acid, 170–171

Termite colonies, 19

Thalidomide, 168

Thermodynamics, laws of, 11, 12, 13

Thin layer hromatographic analysis, 177–179, 231

Thioester World, 201–203, 269, 281

Thioesters, 119, 201–202, 269, 281

Thiols, 119, 269

Threose, 221, 290

Thymine, 195, 217

Titan (moon), 31–32, 106

TNA, 221, 287, 290

Toporski, Jan, 73

Tree of life, 138–141, 264, 273

Tricarboxylic acid cycle, 274, 283

U

Ultracold vacuum experiments, 92, 122–123, 146, 148–149, 262

Ultraviolet radiation, 81, 85, 86, 91, 93, 95, 96, 105, 112, 122–123, 127, 148, 152, 155, 156, 157, 224, 234

Undersea volcanic vents, ecosystems, 1–2.

See also Hydrothermal-origins hypothesis

ammonia source, 115

black smokers, 119, 263

ecosystems, 96–99

mineral-rich environment, 111, 114, 118, 119, 206, 211, 212, 234

sulfide pillars, 119

Uniformitarians, 28, 253

Université Louis Pasteur, 259

University of Bristol, 90, 257

University of California

Davis, 146

Los Angeles, 37, 39, 59

San Diego, 22, 92

Santa Barbara, 256

Santa Cruz, 149, 232

University of Chicago, 81, 86–87, 156

University of Colorado, 30, 59, 216

University of Florida, 261

University of Houston, 91

University of Illinois, 138, 235

University of Karlsruhe, 247

University of Miami, 200

University of Montana, 73

University of Newcastle, 268

University of Regensburg, 207

University of Washington, 115

Updike, John, 155

Uracil, 217

Urea, 64, 134

Urey, Harold, 81, 86–90, 92, 200, 261

U.S. Geological Survey, 116

V

van Kranendonk, Martin, 41

“Ventists,” 109–110, 112, 266.

See also Hydrothermal-origins hypothesis

Vesicles, 144–145, 146, 149, 150, 189, 276

Violarite, 284

Viruses, 27, 235–236, 238

Vitalism, 83, 84–85, 133

Volcanic eruptions, x, 262–263.

See also Undersea volcanic vents

von Kiedrowski, Guenter, 196

W

Wächtershäuser, Günter, 2, 107, 111–115, 118–119, 130, 192, 203, 205, 206–208, 210, 212, 213, 215, 216, 260, 261, 263, 266–268, 281, 282, 283

Walters, Malcolm, 55–56, 58

Washington University, 125, 282

Water, 85

biomolecular assembly in, 3, 110–111, 153, 205, 210

dielectric constant, 1, 247–248

at extreme pressure-cooker conditions, 2, 108, 247–248

pyruvate experiments, 4–5

Watson, James, 194, 196

Werner, Brad, 22

Western Australian

chert, 54

shale, 66

Whale, evolution, 77–80, 259–260

Whitehead Institute, 238

Whitehouse, Martin, 60

Wills, Christopher, 87, 109–110

Wilson, E. O., xi, xii

Woese, Carl, 138–140, 264, 273, 274

Wöhler, Frederich, 134, 272

Wolfram, Stephen, 15–16

Women, in origins research, 187–188

X

X-ray spectrometry, 52

Xylose, 136

Y

Yale University, 3, 216, 218

Ycas, Martynas, 113–114, 267

Yeast chromosomes, 237

Yoder, Hatten S. (Hat), 4, 9, 107, 109, 184, 211

Z

Zeolites, 160

Zinc sulfides, 118

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