References
Alaiti, R. K., J. Castro, H. Lee, J. P. Caneiro, J. W. S. Vlaeyen, S. J. Kamper, and M. F. da Costa. 2022. What are the mechanisms of action of cognitive-behavioral, mind-body, and exercise-based interventions for pain and disability in people with chronic primary musculoskeletal pain? A systematic review of mediation studies from randomized controlled trials. The Journal of Clinical Pain 38(7):502–509.
Alliance to Advance Comprehensive Integrative Pain Management. 2022. Comprehensive and Integrative Pain Management Toolbox. August. https://painmanagementalliance.org/what-iscipm/ (accessed June 26, 2025).
Ardito, R. B., and D. Rabellino. 2011. Therapeutic alliance and outcome of psychotherapy: Historical excursus, measurements, and prospects for research. Frontiers in Psychology 2:270.
Aroke, E. N., P. V. Joseph, A. Roy, D. S. Overstreet, T. O. Tollefsbol, D. E. Vance, and B. R. Goodin. 2019. Could epigenetics help explain racial disparities in chronic pain? Journal of Pain Research 12:701–710.
Aroke, E. N., P. Jackson, L. Meng, Z. Huo, D. S. Overstreet, T. M. Penn, T. L. Quinn, Y. Cruz-Almeida, and B. R. Goodin. 2022a. Differential DNA methylation in Black and White individuals with chronic low back pain enrich different genomic pathways. Neurobiology of Pain 11:100086.
Aroke, E. N., J. M. Hobson, T. Ptacek, P. Jackson, and B. R. Goodin. 2022b. Genome-wide DNA methylation study identifies significant epigenomic changes associated with internalized stigma in adults with non-specific chronic low back pain. Frontiers in Pain Research (Lausanne) 3.
Askey, T., R. Lasrado, M. Maiarú, and G. J. Stephens. 2024. Psilocybin as a novel treatment for chronic pain. British Journal of Pharmacology 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/bph.17420.
Balba, N. M., A. A. McBride, M. L. Callahan, S. D. Mist, K. D. Jones, M. P. Butler, M. M. Lim, and M. M. Heinricher. 2022. Photosensitivity is associated with chronic pain following traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma 39(17–18):1183–1194.
Barhorst, E. E., A. E. Boruch, D. B. Cook, and J. B. Lindheimer. 2021. Pain-related postexertional malaise in myalgic encephalomyelitis / chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) and fibromyalgia: A systematic review and three-level meta-analysis. Pain Medicine 23(6):1144–1157.
Bartley, E. J., N. I. Hossain, C. C. Gravlee, K. T. Sibille, E. L. Terry, I. A. Vaughn, J. S. Cardoso, S. Q. Booker, T. L. Glover, B. R. Goodin, A. Sotolongo, K. A. Thompson, H. W. Bulls, R. Staud, J. C. Edberg, L. A. Bradley, and R. B. Fillingim. 2019. Race/ethnicity moderates the association between psychosocial resilience and movement-evoked pain in knee osteoarthritis. ACR Open Rheumatology 1(1):16–25.
Booker, S. Q., and T. Okolie. 2024. Pain-affirming care at the intersection of race, aging, and pain management nursing. Pain Management Nursing 25(4):323–326.
Borsook, D., and E. Kalso. 2013. Transforming pain medicine: Adapting to science and society. European Journal of Pain 17(8). https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1532-2149.2013.00297.
Chae, J., D. T. Yu, M. E. Walker, A. Kirsteins, E. P. Elovic, S. R. Flanagan, R. L. Harvey, R. D. Zorowitz, F. S. Frost, J. H. Grill, and Z.-P. Fang. 2005. Intramuscular electrical stimulation for hemiplegic shoulder pain: A 12-month follow-up of a multiple-center, randomized clinical trial. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation 84(11):832–842.
Chambers, C. T., J. Dol, P. R. Tutelman, C. L. Langley, J. A. Parker, B. T. Cormier, G. J. Macfarlane, G. T. Jones, D. Chapman, N. Proudfoot, A. Grant, and J. Marianayagam. 2024. The prevalence of chronic pain in children and adolescents: A systematic review update and meta-analysis. Pain 165(10):2215–2234.
Chronic Pain Research Alliance. 2023. About COPCs. https://chronicpainresearch.org/about_copcs/ (accessed July 18, 2025).
Choy, E., S. Perrot, T. Leon, J. Kaplan, D. Petersel, A. Ginovker, and E. Kramer. 2010. A patient survey of the impact of fibromyalgia and the journey to diagnosis. BMC Health Services Research 10:102.
Clauw, D. J., M. N. Essex, V. Pitman, and K. D. Jones. 2019. Reframing chronic pain as a disease, not a symptom: Rationale and implications for pain management. Postgraduate Medicine 131(3):185–198.
Darnall, B. 2019. Psychological treatments for patients with chronic pain. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Darnall, B. D. 2025a. Brief interventions for chronic pain: Approaches and evidence. Current Opinion in Psychology 62:101978.
Darnall, B. D. 2025b. Empowering pain relief. ASA Monitor 89(3).
Darnall, B. D., J. Scheman, S. Davin, J. W. Burns, J. L. Murphy, A. C. Wilson, R. D. Kerns, and S. C. Mackey. 2016. Pain psychology: A global needs assessment and national call to action. Pain Medicine 17(2):250–263.
Darnall, B. D., A. Roy, A. L. Chen, M. S. Ziadni, R. T. Keane, D. S. You, K. Slater, H. Poupore-King, I. Mackey, M.-C. Kao, K. F. Cook, K. Lorig, D. Zhang, J. Hong, L. Tian, and S. C. Mackey. 2021. Comparison of a single-session pain management skills intervention with a single-session health education intervention and 8 sessions of cognitive behavioral therapy in adults with chronic low back pain: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Network Open 4(8):e2113401.
Darnall, B. D., K. A. Edwards, R. E. Courtney, M. S. Ziadni, L. E. Simons, and L. E. Harrison. 2023. Innovative treatment formats, technologies, and clinician trainings that improve access to behavioral pain treatment for youth and adults. Frontiers in Pain Research (Lausanne) 4.
Darnall, B. D., J. W. Burns, J. Hong, A. Roy, K. Slater, H. Poupore-King, M. S. Ziadni, D. S. You, C. Jung, K. F. Cook, K. Lorig, L. Tian, and S. C. Mackey. 2024. Empowered Relief, cognitive behavioral therapy, and health education for people with chronic pain: A comparison of outcomes at 6-month follow-up for a randomized controlled trial. Pain Reports 9(1):e1116.
Davin, S. A., J. Savage, N. R. Thompson, A. Schuster, and B. D. Darnall. 2022. Transforming standard of care for spine surgery: Integration of an online single-session behavioral pain management class for perioperative optimization. Frontiers in Pain Research (Lausanne) 3:856252.
Davis, K. D., H. Flor, H. T. Greely, G. D. Iannetti, S. Mackey, M. Ploner, A. Pustilnik, I. Tracey, R. D. Treede, and T. D. Wager. 2017. Brain imaging tests for chronic pain: Medical, legal and ethical issues and recommendations. Nature Reviews Neurology 13(10):624–638.
Davis, K. D., N. Aghaeepour, A. H. Ahn, M. S. Angst, D. Borsook, A. Brenton, M. E. Burczynski, C. Crean, R. Edwards, B. Gaudilliere, G. W. Hergenroeder, M. J. Iadarola, S. Iyengar, Y. Jiang, J. T. Kong, S. Mackey, C. Y. Saab, C. N. Sang, J. Scholz, M. Segerdahl, I. Tracey, C. Veasley, J. Wang, T. D. Wager, A. D. Wasan, and M. A. Pelleymounter. 2020. Discovery and validation of biomarkers to aid the development of safe and effective pain therapeutics: Challenges and opportunities. Nature Reviews Neurology 16(7):381–400.
Deer, T. R., E. Grigsby, R. L. Weiner, B. Wilcosky, and J. M. Kramer. 2013. A prospective study of dorsal root ganglion stimulation for the relief of chronic pain. Neuromodulation 16(1):67–71.
Delitto, A., C. G. Patterson, J. M. Stevans, J. K. Freburger, S. S. Khoja, M. J. Schneider, C. M. Greco, J. A. Freel, G. A. Sowa, A. D. Wasan, G. P. Brennan, S. J. Hunter, K. I. Minick, S. T. Wegener, P. L. Ephraim, J. M. Beneciuk, S. Z. George, and R. B. Saper. 2021. Stratified care to prevent chronic low back pain in high-risk patients: The TARGET trial. A multisite pragmatic cluster randomized trial. EClinicalMedicine 34:100795.
De Ridder, D., M. Plazier, N. Kamerling, T. Menovsky, and S. Vanneste. 2013. Burst spinal cord stimulation for limb and back pain. World Neurosurgery 80(5):642–649.e1.
Dueñas, M., B. Ojeda, A. Salazar, J. A. Mico, and I. Failde. 2016. A review of chronic pain impact on patients, their social environment and the health care system. Journal of Pain Research 9:457–467.
Durbhakula, S., T. Y. Wang, K. G. Segna, G. R. Limerick, M. Y. Broachwala, M. E. Schatman, M. A. Zaidi, I. J. Siddarthan, and S. Toy. 2024. Shifts in students’ attitudes towards pain patients, pain, and opioid management following a dedicated medical school pain curriculum. Journal of Pain Research 2(17):827–835. https:/doi.org/10.2147/JPR.S447671.
Evans, J. R., E. Benore, and G. A. Banez. 2016. The cost-effectiveness of intensive interdisciplinary pediatric chronic pain rehabilitation. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 41(8):849–856.
Farrokhi, S., E. Russell Esposito, D. McPherson, B. Mazzone, R. Condon, C. G. Patterson, M. Schneider, C. M. Greco, A. Delitto, M. J. Highsmith, B. D. Hendershot, J. Maikos, and C. L. Dearth. 2020. Resolving the Burden of Low Back Pain in Military Service Members and Veterans (RESOLVE): Protocol for a multisite pragmatic clinical trial. Pain Medicine 21(Suppl 2):s45–s52.
Firestone, K. A., H. Johnston, J. Portanova, and K. D. Jones. 2025. Integrating complex pain concepts into prelicensure nursing education: An unfolding case study to enhance clinical reasoning and competency. Nurse Educator 50(3):165–168.
Fisher, E., E. Law, J. Dudeney, T. M. Palermo, G. Stewart, and C. Eccleston. 2018. Psychological therapies for the management of chronic and recurrent pain in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 9(9):Cd003968.
Freij, K. W., F. Agbor, K. R. Kinnie, V. Srinivasasainagendra, T. L. Quinn, H. K. Tiwari, R. E. Sorge, B. R. Goodin, and E. N. Aroke. 2024. The pace of biological aging significantly mediates the relationship between internalized stigma of chronic pain and chronic low back pain severity among non-Hispanic black but not non-Hispanic white adults. Neurobiology of Pain 16:100170.
Friedrichsdorf, S. J., A. Postier, D. Eull, C. Weidner, L. Foster, M. Gilbert, and F. Campbell. 2015. Pain outcomes in a US children’s hospital: A cross-sectional survey. Hospital Pediatrics 5(1):18–26.
Friedrichsdorf, S. J., J. Giordano, K. Desai Dakoji, A. Warmuth, C. Daughtry, and C. A. Schulz. 2016. Chronic pain in children and adolescents: Diagnosis and treatment of primary pain disorders in head, abdomen, muscles and joints. Children (Basel) 3(4).
Friend, R., R. M. Bennett, J. H. Aebischer, A. W. St. John, and K. D. Jones. 2021. Validating the revised Symptom Impact Questionnaire with a proposed fibromyalgia phenotype using experimentally-induced pain and patient self-reports. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology 39 Suppl 130(3):137–143.
Gatchel, R. J., and K. H. Rollings. 2008. Evidence-informed management of chronic low back pain with cognitive behavioral therapy. The Spine Journal 8(1):40–44.
George, S. Z., and M. D. Bishop. 2018. Chronic musculoskeletal pain is a nervous system disorder… Now what? Physical Therapy 98(4):209–213.
Goel, A., Y. Rai, S. Sivadas, C. Diep, H. Clarke, H. Shanthanna, and K. S. Ladha. 2023. Use of psychedelics for pain: A scoping review. Anesthesiology 139(4):523–536.
Greco, C. M., S. A. Gaylord, K. Faurot, J. M. Weinberg, P. Gardiner, I. Roth, J. L. Barnhill, H. N. Thomas, S. C. Dhamne, C. Lathren, J. E. Baez, S. Lawrence, T. Neogi, K. E. Lasser, M. G. Castro, A. M. White, S. J. Simmons, C. Ferrao, D. D. Binda, N. Elhadidy, K. M. Eason, K. M. McTigue, and N. E. Morone. 2021. The design and methods of the OPTIMUM study: A multisite pragmatic randomized clinical trial of a telehealth group mindfulness program for persons with chronic low back pain. Contemporary Clinical Trials 109:106545.
Griffin, A., L. Wilson, A. B. Feinstein, A. Bortz, M. S. Heirich, R. Gilkerson, J. F. Wagner, M. Menendez, T. J. Caruso, S. Rodriguez, S. Naidu, B. Golianu, and L. E. Simons. 2020. Virtual reality in pain rehabilitation for youth with chronic pain: Pilot feasibility study. JMIR Rehabilitation Assistive Technologies 7(2):e22620.
Groenewald, C. B., B. S. Essner, D. Wright, M. D. Fesinmeyer, and T. M. Palermo. 2014. The economic costs of chronic pain among a cohort of treatment-seeking adolescents in the United States. The Journal of Pain 15(9):925–933.
Groenewald, C. B., D. R. Wright, and T. M. Palermo. 2015. Health care expenditures associated with pediatric pain-related conditions in the United States. Pain 156(5):951–957.
Haroutounian, S., K. J. Holzer, R. D. Kerns, C. Veasley, R. H. Dworkin, D. C. Turk, K. L. Carman, C. T. Chambers, P. Cowan, R. R. Edwards, J. C. Eisenach, J. T. Farrar, M. Ferguson, L. P. Forsythe, R. Freeman, J. S. Gewandter, I. Gilron, C. Goertz, H. Grol-Prokopczyk, S. Iyengar, I. Jordan, C. Kamp, B. A. Kleykamp, R. L. Knowles, D. J. Langford, S. Mackey, R. Malamut, J. Markman, K. R. Martin, E. McNicol, K. V. Patel, A. S. C. Rice, M. Rowbotham, F. Sandbrink, L. S. Simon, D. J. Steiner, and J. Vollert. 2024. Patient engagement in designing, conducting, and disseminating clinical pain research: IMMPACT recommended considerations. Pain 165(5):1013–1028.
Hayden, J. A., J. Ellis, R. Ogilvie, A. Malmivaara, and M. W. van Tulder. 2021. Exercise therapy for chronic low back pain. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 9(9):Cd009790.
Heathcote, L. C., J. Rabner, A. Lebel, J. M. Hernandez, and L. E. Simons. 2018. Rapid screening of risk in pediatric headache: Application of the pediatric pain screening tool. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 43(3):243–251.
Higgins, K. S., K. A. Birnie, C. T. Chambers, A. C. Wilson, L. Caes, A. J. Clark, M. Lynch, J. Stinson, and M. Campbell-Yeo. 2015. Offspring of parents with chronic pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis of pain, health, psychological, and family outcomes. Pain 156(11):2256–2266.
Hoffman, K. M., S. Trawalter, J. R. Axt, and M. N. Oliver. 2016. Racial bias in pain assessment and treatment recommendations, and false beliefs about biological differences between Blacks and Whites. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 113(16):4296–4301.
Huguet, A., and J. Miró. 2008. The severity of chronic pediatric pain: An epidemiological study. The Journal of Pain 9(3):226–236.
Hui, K. K., J. Liu, N. Makris, R. L. Gollub, A. J. Chen, C. I. Moore, D. N. Kennedy, B. R. Rosen, and K. K. Kwong. 2000. Acupuncture modulates the limbic system and sub-cortical gray structures of the human brain: Evidence from fMRI studies in normal subjects. Human Brain Mapping 9(1):13–25.
Hui, K. K., J. Liu, O. Marina, V. Napadow, C. Haselgrove, K. K. Kwong, D. N. Kennedy, and N. Makris. 2005. The integrated response of the human cerebro-cerebellar and limbic systems to acupuncture stimulation at ST 36 as evidenced by fMRI. NeuroImage 27(3):479–496.
Huntoon, M. A., K. V. Slavin, J. M. Hagedorn, N. D. Crosby, and J. W. Boggs. 2023. A retrospective review of real-world outcomes following 60-day peripheral nerve stimulation for the treatment of chronic pain. Pain Physician 26(3):273–281.
Johnson, A. J., T. Vasilopoulos, S. Q. Booker, J. Cardoso, E. L. Terry, K. Powell-Roach, R. Staud, D. A. Kusko, A. S. Addison, D. T. Redden, B. R. Goodin, R. B. Fillingim, and K. T. Sibille. 2021. Knee pain trajectories over 18 months in non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic White adults with or at risk for knee osteoarthritis. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders 22(1):415.
Jones, K. D., L. A. King, S. D. Mist, R. M. Bennett, and F. B. Horak. 2011. Postural control deficits in people with fibromyalgia: A pilot study. Arthritis Research & Therapy 13(4):R127.
Jones, M. D., H. J. Hansford, A. Bastianon, M. T. Gibbs, Y. L. Gilanyi, N. E. Foster, S. G. Dean, R. Ogilvie, J. A. Hayden, and L. Wood. 2025. Exercise adherence is associated with improvements in pain intensity and functional limitations in adults with chronic non-specific low back pain: A secondary analysis of a Cochrane review. Journal of Physiotherapy 71(2):91–99.
Kapos, F. P., K. D. Craig, S. R. Anderson, S. F. Bernardes, A. T. Hirsh, K. Karos, E. Keogh, E. A. Reynolds Losin, J. L. McParland, D. J. Moore, and C. E. Ashton-James. 2024. Social determinants and consequences of pain: Toward multilevel, intersectional, and life course perspectives. The Journal of Pain 25(10).
Kapural, L., B. Kim, J. Eidt, E. A. Petersen, J. M. Schwalb, K. V. Slavin, and N. Mekhail. 2024. Long-term treatment of chronic postamputation pain with bioelectric nerve block: Twelve-month results of the randomized, double-blinded, cross-over QUEST study. Neuromodulation 27(8):1383–1392.
Kelley, G. A., K. S. Kelley, and L. F. Callahan. 2022. Clinical relevance of tai chi on pain and physical function in adults with knee osteoarthritis: An ancillary meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Science Progress 105(2):368504221088375.
Knoebel, R. W., J. V. Starck, and P. Miller. 2021. Treatment disparities among the Black population and their influence on the equitable management of chronic pain. Health Equity 5(1):596–605.
Kong, L., J. Ren, S. Fang, T. He, X. Zhou, and M. Fang. 2022. Traditional Chinese exercises on pain and disability in middle-aged and elderly patients with neck pain: A systematic-review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 14:912945.
Kraal, T., I. Sierevelt, D. van Deurzen, M. P. van den Bekerom, and L. Beimers. 2018. Corticosteroid injection alone vs additional physiotherapy treatment in early stage frozen shoulders. World Journal of Orthopedics 9(9):165–172. https://doi.org/10.5312/wjo.v9.i9.165.
Lagerbäck, T., G. Kastrati, H. Möller, K. Jensen, M. Skorpil, and P. Gerdhem. 2021. MRI characteristics at a mean of thirteen years after lumbar disc herniation surgery in adolescents: A case-control study. The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery 6(4).
Lanoye, A., K. E. Stewart, B. D. Rybarczyk, S. M. Auerbach, E. Sadock, A. Aggarwal, R. Waller, S. Wolver, and K. Austin. 2017. The impact of integrated psychological services in a safety net primary care clinic on medical utilization. Journal of Clinical Psychology 73(6):681–692.
Larkey, L., R. Jahnke, J. Etnier, and J. Gonzalez. 2009. Meditative movement as a category of exercise: Implications for research. Journal of Physical Activity and Health 6(2):230–238.
Lauche, R., C. Stumpe, J. Fehr, H. Cramer, Y. W. Cheng, P. M. Wayne, T. Rampp, J. Langhorst, and G. Dobos. 2016. The effects of tai chi and neck exercises in the treatment of chronic nonspecific neck pain: A randomized controlled trial. The Journal of Pain 17(9):1013–1027.
Leininger, B., R. Evans, C. M. Greco, L. Hanson, C. Schulz, M. Schneider, J. Connett, F. Keefe, R. M. Glick, and G. Bronfort. 2025. Supported biopsychosocial self-management for back-related leg pain: A randomized feasibility study integrating a whole person perspective. Chiropractic & Manual Therapies 33(1):6.
Lybarger, K., M. Yetisgen, and Ö. Uzuner. 2023. The 2022 n2c2/UW shared task on extracting social determinants of health. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association 30(8):1367–1378.
Lyes, M., K. H. Yang, J. Castellanos, and T. Furnish. 2023. Microdosing psilocybin for chronic pain: A case series. Pain 164(4):698–702.
Ma, T. W., A. S. Yuen, and Z. Yang. 2023. The efficacy of acceptance and commitment therapy for chronic pain: A systematic review and meta analysis. The Clinical Journal of Pain 39(3):147–157.
Mackey, S., H. T. Greely, and K. T. Martucci. 2019. Neuroimaging-based pain biomarkers: Definitions, clinical and research applications, and evaluation frameworks to achieve personalized pain medicine. PAIN Reports 4(4):e762.
Mackey, S., N. Aghaeepour, B. Gaudilliere, M. C. Kao, M. Kaptan, E. Lannon, D. Pfyffer, and K. Weber. 2025. Innovations in acute and chronic pain biomarkers: Enhancing diagnosis and personalized therapy. Regional Anesthesia & Pain Medicine 50(2):110–120.
MacKichan, F., V. Wylde, and P. Dieppe. 2008. The assessment of musculoskeletal pain in the clinical setting. Rheumatic Disease Clinics of North America 34(2):311–330.
Maddox, T., C. Sparks, L. Oldstone, R. Maddox, K. Ffrench, H. Garcia, P. Krishnamurthy, D. Okhotin, L. M. Garcia, B. J. Birckhead, J. Sackman, I. Mackey, R. Louis, V. Salmasi, A. Oyao, and B. D. Darnall. 2023. Durable chronic low back pain reductions up to 24 months after treatment for an accessible, 8-week, in-home behavioral skills-based virtual reality program: A randomized controlled trial. Pain Medicine 24(10):1200–1203.
Mahrer, N. E., J. I. Gold, M. Luu, and P. M. Herman. 2018. A cost-analysis of an interdisciplinary pediatric chronic pain clinic. The Journal of Pain 19(2):158–165.
Main, C. J., L. A. Ballengee, S. Z. George, J. M. Beneciuk, C. M. Greco, and C. B. Simon. 2023. Psychologically informed practice: The importance of communication in clinical implementation. Physical Therapy 103(7).
Maixner, W., R. B. Fillingim, D. A. Williams, S. B. Smith, and G. D. Slade. 2016. Overlapping chronic pain conditions: Implications for diagnosis and classification. The Journal of Pain 17(9 Suppl):t93–t107.
Manchikanti, L., V. Pampati, F. J. E. Falco, and J. A. Hirsch. 2015. An updated assessment of utilization of interventional pain management techniques in the Medicare population: 2000-2013. Pain Physician 18:E115-E127.
McCracken, L. M., and K. E. Vowles. 2014. Acceptance and commitment therapy and mindfulness for chronic pain: Model, process, and progress. American Psychologist 69(2):178–187.
McDonagh, M. S., S. S. Selph, D. I. Buckley, R. S. Holmes, K. Mauer, S. Ramirez, F. C. Hsu, T. Dana, R. Fu, and R. Chou. 2020. Nonopioid pharmacologic treatments for chronic pain. Comparative Effectiveness Review No. 228. (Prepared by the Pacific Northwest Evidence-based Practice Center under Contract No. 290-2015-00009-I.) AHRQ Publication No. 20-EHC010. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. https://doi.org/10.23970/AHRQEPCCER228.
Meijer, F. S., C. H. Martini, S. Broens, M. Boon, M. Niesters, L. Aarts, E. Olofsen, M. van Velzen, and A. Dahan. 2019. Nociception-guided versus standard care during remifentanil-propofol anesthesia: A randomized controlled trial. Anesthesiology 130(5):745–755.
Melek, S. P., D. T. Norris, J. Paulus, K. Matthews, A. Weaver, and S. Davenport. 2018. Potential economic impact of integrated medical-behavioral healthcare. Seattle, WA: Millman.
Mezei, L., and B. B. Murinson. 2011. Pain education in North American medical schools. The Journal of Pain 12(12):1199–1208.
Morone, N. E., B. L. Rollman, C. G. Moore, Q. Li, and D. K. Weiner. 2009. A mind-body program for older adults with chronic low back pain: Results of a pilot study. Pain Medicine 10(8):1395–1407.
Moshrif, A., A. Mosallam, M. H. Abu-Zaid, and W. Gouda. 2023. Evaluating the effect of delayed diagnosis on disease outcome in fibromyalgia: A multi-center cross-sectional study. Journal of Pain Research 16:1355–1365.
Murray, C. B., C. B. Groenewald, R. de la Vega, and T. M. Palermo. 2020. Long-term impact of adolescent chronic pain on young adult educational, vocational, and social outcomes. Pain 161(2):439–445.
Nahin, R. L., T. Feinberg, F. P. Kapos, and G. W. Terman. 2023. Estimated rates of incident and persistent chronic pain among US adults, 2019–2020. JAMA Network Open 6(5):e2313563. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.13563.
Nahin, R. L., A. Rhee, and B. Stussman. 2024. Use of complementary health approaches overall and for pain management by US adults. JAMA 331(7):613–615.
NASEM (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine). 2017. The health effects of cannabis and cannabinoids: The current state of evidence and recommendations for research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
National Center for Health Statistics. 2023. NCHS Rapid Surveys System: Round 1 survey description. Hyattsville, MD.
Neville, A., A. Jordan, T. Pincus, C. Nania, F. Schulte, K. O. Yeates, and M. Noel. 2020. Diagnostic uncertainty in pediatric chronic pain: Nature, prevalence, and consequences. Pain Reports 5(6):e871.
Osypiuk, K., E. Thompson, and P. M. Wayne. 2018. Can tai chi and qigong postures shape our mood? Toward an embodied cognition framework for mind-body research. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 12:174.
Pain Management Best Practices Inter-Agency Task Force. 2019. Pain management best practices: Updates, gaps, inconsistencies, and recommendations. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Palermo, T. M. 2020. Pain prevention and management must begin in childhood: The key role of psychological interventions. Pain 161(Suppl):s114–s121.
Palermo, T. M., A. C. Wilson, M. Peters, A. Lewandowski, and H. Somhegyi. 2009. Randomized controlled trial of an Internet-delivered family cognitive-behavioral therapy intervention for children and adolescents with chronic pain. Pain 146(1–2):205–213.
Palermo, T. M., R. de la Vega, C. Murray, E. Law, and C. Zhou. 2020. A digital health psychological intervention (WebMAP Mobile) for children and adolescents with chronic pain: Results of a hybrid effectiveness-implementation stepped-wedge cluster randomized trial. Pain 161(12):2763–2774.
Palermo, T. M., G. A. Walco, U. R. Paladhi, K. A. Birnie, G. Crombez, R. de la Vega, C. Eccleston, S. Kashikar-Zuck, and A. L. Stone. 2021. Core outcome set for pediatric chronic pain clinical trials: Results from a Delphi poll and consensus meeting. Pain 162(10):2539–2547.
Patel, A. B. U., P. Bibawy, Z. Majeed, W. L. Gan, and G. L. Ackland. 2022. Trans-auricular vagus nerve stimulation to reduce perioperative pain and morbidity: Protocol for a single-blind analyser-masked randomised controlled trial. BJA Open 2.
Piette, J. D., S. Newman, S. L. Krein, N. Marinec, J. Chen, D. A. Williams, S. N. Edmond, M. Driscoll, K. M. LaChappelle, R. D. Kerns, M. Maly, H. M. Kim, K. B. Farris, D. M. Higgins, E. Buta, and A. A. Heapy. 2022. Patient-centered pain care using artificial intelligence and mobile health tools: A randomized comparative effectiveness trial. JAMA Internal Medicine 182(9):975–983.
Pitcher, M. H., M. Von Korff, M. C. Bushnell, and L. Porter. 2019. Prevalence and profile of high-impact chronic pain in the United States. The Journal of Pain 20(2):146–160.
Postier, A. C., D. Eull, C. Schulz, M. Fitzgerald, B. Symalla, D. Watson, L. Goertzen, and S. J. Friedrichsdorf. 2018. Pain experience in a US children’s hospital: A point prevalence survey undertaken after the implementation of a system-wide protocol to eliminate or decrease pain caused by needles. Hospital Pediatrics 8(9):515–523.
Price, D. D., A. Rafii, L. R. Watkins, and B. Buckingham. 1984. A psychophysical analysis of acupuncture analgesia. Pain 19(1):27–42.
Pritzlaff, S. G., U. Latif, J. M. Rosenow, J. Chae, R. D. Wilson, W. J. Huffman, N. D. Crosby, and J. W. Boggs. 2024. A review of prospective studies regarding percutaneous peripheral nerve stimulation treatment in the management of chronic pain. Pain Management 14(4):209–222.
Pritzlaff, S. G., N. Singh, C. Sanghvi, M. J. Jung, P. K. Cheng, and D. Copenhaver. 2025. Declining pain medicine fellowship applications from 2019 to 2024: A concerning trend among anesthesia residents and a growing gender disparity. Pain Practice 25(1):e13441.
Qaseem, A., T. J. Wilt, R. M. McLean, M. A. Forciea, T. D. Denberg, M. J. Barry, C. Boyd, R. D. Chow, N. Fitterman, R. P. Harris, L. L. Humphrey, and S. Vijan. 2017. Noninvasive treatments for acute, subacute, and chronic low back pain: A clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. Annals of Internal Medicine 166(7):514–530.
Rikard, S. M., A. E. Strahan, K. M. Schmit, and G. P. Guy Jr. 2023. Prevalence of pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic pain management therapies among adults with chronic pain—United States, 2020. Annals of Internal Medicine 176(11):1571–1575.
Ruehr, L., S. Blomé, G. Kastrati, T. Lagerbäck, M. Jonsjö, H. Möller, M. Skorpil, J. Lasselin, M. Lalouni, P. Gerdhem, and K. Jensen. 2024. Back morphology and walking patterns mean 13.8 years after surgery for lumbar disk herniation in adolescents. Pain Reports 9(2):e1148.
Rufener, L., C. Akre, P. Y. Rodondi, and J. Dubois. 2024. Management of chronic non-cancer pain by primary care physicians: A qualitative study. PLoS One 19(7):e0307701.
Salaffi, F., S. Farah, B. Bianchi, M. G. Lommano, and M. Di Carlo. 2024. Delay in fibromyalgia diagnosis and its impact on the severity and outcome: A large cohort study. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology 42(6):1198–1204.
Schirle, L., D. C. Samuels, A. Faucon, N. J. Cox, and S. Bruehl. 2023. Polygenic contributions to chronic overlapping pain conditions in a large electronic health record sample. The Journal of Pain 24(6):1056–1068.
Schmalzl, L., and C. E. Kerr. 2016. Editorial: Neural mechanisms underlying movement-based embodied contemplative practices. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 10.
Schrepf, A., W. Maixner, R. Fillingim, C. Veasley, R. Ohrbach, S. Smith, and D. A. Williams. 2024. The chronic overlapping pain condition screener. The Journal of Pain 25(1):265–272.
Simons, L. E., C. B. Sieberg, M. Pielech, C. Conroy, and D. E. Logan. 2013. What does it take? Comparing intensive rehabilitation to outpatient treatment for children with significant pain-related disability. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 38(2):213–223.
Simons, L. E., A. Smith, C. Ibagon, R. Coakley, D. E. Logan, N. Schechter, D. Borsook, and J. C. Hill. 2015. Pediatric Pain Screening Tool: Rapid identification of risk in youth with pain complaints. Pain 156(8):1511–1518.
Simons, L. E., C. B. Sieberg, C. Conroy, E. T. Randall, J. Shulman, D. Borsook, C. Berde, N. F. Sethna, and D. E. Logan. 2018. Children with chronic pain: Response trajectories following intensive pain rehabilitation treatment. The Journal of Pain 19(2):207–218.
Simons, L. E., J. W. S. Vlaeyen, L. Declercq, A. M. Smith, J. Beebe, M. Hogan, E. Li, C. A. Kronman, F. Mahmud, J. R. Corey, C. B. Sieberg, and C. Ploski. 2020. Avoid or engage? Outcomes of graded exposure in youth with chronic pain using a sequential replicated single-case randomized design. Pain 161(3):520–531. https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001735.
Simons, L. E., L. E. Harrison, D. B. Boothroyd, G. Parvathinathan, A. R. Van Orden, S. F. O’Brien, D. Schofield, J. Kraindler, R. Shrestha, J. W. S. Vlaeyen, and R. K. Wicksell. 2024. A randomized controlled trial of graded exposure treatment (GET living) for adolescents with chronic pain. Pain 165(1):177–191.
Skelly, A. C., R. Chou, J. R. Dettori, J. A. Turner, J. L. Friedly, S. D. Rundell, R. Fu, E. D. Brodt, N. Wasson, S. Kantner, and A. J. R. Ferguson. 2020. Noninvasive nonpharmacological treatment for chronic pain: A systematic review update. AHRQ Comparative Effectiveness Reviews. Report No. 20-EHC009. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.
Stenum, J., M. M. Hsu, A. Y. Pantelyat, and R. T. Roemmich. 2024. Clinical gait analysis using video-based pose estimation: Multiple perspectives, clinical populations, and measuring change. PLOS Digital Health 3(3):e0000467.
Stone, A. L., A. L. Holley, N. F. Dieckmann, and A. C. Wilson. 2019. Use of the PROMIS-29® to identify subgroups of mothers with chronic pain. Health Psychology 38(5):422–430.
Tan, G., D. H. Rintala, M. P. Jensen, J. S. Richards, S. A. Holmes, R. Parachuri, S. Lashgari-Saegh, and L. R. Price. 2011. Efficacy of cranial electrotherapy stimulation for neuropathic pain following spinal cord injury: A multi-site randomized controlled trial with a secondary 6-month open-label phase. The Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine 34(3):285–296.
Tang, L., Z. Sun, B. Idnay, J. G. Nestor, A. Soroush, P. A. Elias, Z. Xu, Y. Ding, G. Durrett, J. F. Rousseau, C. Weng, and Y. Peng. 2023. Evaluating large language models on medical evidence summarization. NPJ Digital Med 6(1):158.
Taylor, K. A., F. P. Kapos, J. A. Sharpe, A. S. Kosinski, D. I. Rhon, and A. P. Goode. 2024. Seventeen-year national pain prevalence trends among U.S. military veterans. The Journal of Pain 25(5):104420.
Tiecke, E., M. Rainisio, E. Eisenberg, J. Wainstein, E. Kaplan, M. Silverberg, L. Hochman, and S. Mangialaio. 2022. NRD.E1, an innovative non-opioid therapy for painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy—A randomized proof of concept study. European Journal of Pain 26(8):1665–1678.
Tracy, I., and P. W. Mantyh. 2007. The cerebral signature for pain perception and its modulation. Neuron (55)3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2007.07.012.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2019. Pain management best practices interagency task force report: Updates, gaps, inconsistencies, and recommendations. https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/pain-mgmt-best-practices-draft-final-report-05062019.pdf (accessed May 13, 2025).
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2018. Methods to identify what is important to patients & select, develop or modify fit-for-purpose clinical outcomes assessments. https://www.fda.gov/media/116277/download (accessed July 15, 2025).
Van Veen, D., C. Van Uden, L. Blankemeier, J. B. Delbrouck, A. Aali, C. Bluethgen, A. Pareek, M. Polacin, E. P. Reis, A. Seehofnerová, N. Rohatgi, P. Hosamani, W. Collins, N. Ahuja, C. P. Langlotz, J. Hom, S. Gatidis, J. Pauly, and A. S. Chaudhari. 2024. Adapted large language models can outperform medical experts in clinical text summarization. Nature Medicine 30(4):1134–1142.
Vaughn, I. A., E. L. Terry, E. J. Bartley, N. Schaefer, and R. B. Fillingim. 2019. Racial-ethnic differences in osteoarthritis pain and disability: A meta-analysis. The Journal of Pain 20(6):629–644.
Vickers, A. J., A. M. Cronin, A. C. Maschino, G. Lewith, H. MacPherson, N. E. Foster, K. J. Sherman, C. M. Witt, and K. Linde. 2012. Acupuncture for chronic pain: Individual patient data meta-analysis. JAMA Internal Medicine 172(19):1444–1453.
Von Korff, M., L. L. DeBar, E. E. Krebs, R. D. Kerns, R. A. Deyo, and F. J. Keefe. 2020. Graded chronic pain scale revised: Mild, bothersome, and high-impact chronic pain. Pain 161(3):651–661.
Voss, S., D. A. Boachie, N. Nieves, and N. P. Gothe. 2023. Mind-body practices, interoception and pain: A scoping review of behavioral and neural correlates. Annals of Medicine 55(2):2275661.
Vydiswaran, V. G. V., A. Strayhorn, K. Weber, H. Stevens, J. Mellinger, G. S. Winder, and A. C. Fernandez. 2024. Automated-detection of risky alcohol use prior to surgery using natural language processing. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 48(1):153–163.
Wakefield, E. O., V. Belamkar, M. D. Litt, R. M. Puhl, and W. T. Zempsky. 2022. “There’s nothing wrong with you”: Pain-related stigma in adolescents with chronic pain. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 47(4):456–468.
Walker, L. S., A. L. Stone, G. T. Han, J. Garber, S. Bruehl, C. A. Smith, J. Anderson, and T. M. Palermo. 2021. Internet-delivered cognitive behavioral therapy for youth with functional abdominal pain: A randomized clinical trial testing differential efficacy by patient subgroup. Pain 162(12):2945–2955.
Wang, C., C. H. Schmid, M. D. Iversen, W. F. Harvey, R. A. Fielding, J. B. Driban, L. L. Price, J. B. Wong, K. F. Reid, R. Rones, and T. McAlindon. 2016. Comparative effectiveness of tai chi versus physical therapy for knee osteoarthritis: A randomized trial. Annals of Internal Medicine 165(2):77–86.
Wayne, P., and M. Fuerst. 2013. The Harvard Medical School guide to tai chi: 12 weeks to a healthy body, strong heart, and sharp mind. Boston: Shambhala.
Wilson, R. D., D. D. Gunzler, M. E. Bennett, and J. Chae. 2014. Peripheral nerve stimulation compared with usual care for pain relief of hemiplegic shoulder pain: A randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Physical Medicine &Rehabilitation 93(1):17–28.
Wood, L., N. E. Foster, S. G. Dean, V. Booth, J. A. Hayden, and A. Booth. 2024. Contexts, behavioural mechanisms and outcomes to optimise therapeutic exercise prescription for persistent low back pain: A realist review. British Journal of Sports Medicine 58(4):222–230.
Woods, S. B., P. N. E. Roberson, Q. Booker, B. L. Wood, and S. Q. Booker. 2024. Longitudinal associations of family relationship quality with chronic pain incidence and persistence among aging African Americans. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 79(7).
Yang, G. Y., J. Hunter, F. L. Bu, W. L. Hao, H. Zhang, P. M. Wayne, and J. P. Liu. 2022. Determining the safety and effectiveness of tai chi: A critical overview of 210 systematic reviews of controlled clinical trials. Systematic Review 11(1):260.
Yang, Y., S. McCluskey, M. Bydon, J. R. Singh, R. D. Sheeler, K. R. Nathani, A. C. Krieger, N. D. Mehta, J. Weaver, L. Jia, S. DeCelle, R. C. Schlagal, J. Ayar, S. Abduljawad, S. D. Stovitz, R. Ganesh, J. Verkuilen, K. A. Knapp, L. Yang, and R. Härtl. 2024. A tai chi and qigong mind-body program for low back pain: A virtually delivered randomized control trial. North American Spine Society 20:100557.
Zeliadt, S. B., E. R. Thomas, J. Olson, S. Coggeshall, K. Giannitrapani, P. E. Ackland, K. P. Reddy, D. G. Federman, D. F. Drake, B. Kligler, and S. L. Taylor. 2020. Patient feedback on the effectiveness of auricular acupuncture on pain in routine clinical care: The experience of 11,406 veterans. MedCare 58 (29 Suppl):s101–s107.
Ziadni, M. S., S. R. Anderson, L. Gonzalez-Castro, and B. D. Darnall. 2021. Efficacy of a single-session “empowered relief” zoom-delivered group intervention for chronic pain: Randomized controlled trial conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Medical Internet Research 23(9):e29672. https://doi.org/10.2196/29672.
Zick, S. M., A. Sen, G. K. Wyatt, S. L. Murphy, J. T. Arnedt, and R. E. Harris. 2016. Investigation of 2 types of self-administered acupressure for persistent cancer-related fatigue in breast cancer survivors: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Oncology 2(11):1470–1476.
This page intentionally left blank.
