6

Recommendations for Addressing the Gaps Between Education and Expertise and Workforce Needs

The timing of this report and the evaluation of the state of ocean acoustics education and expertise reflects a growing national concern about present and future workforce demands. Although many challenges faced by the ocean acoustics community stem from its development, multidisciplinary nature, and variety of applications for related technologies requiring various levels of technical expertise, others align with broader national workforce challenges. This chapter reviews the gaps between education and training opportunities (presented in Chapter 3) and workforce needs (presented in Chapter 4) and provides recommendations to address them.

In January 2023, Capranos and Magda published an assessment of the nation’s skills gaps and challenges in Closing the Skills Gap 2023: Employer Perspectives on Educating the Post-Pandemic Workforce. Many of the conclusions reached in it echo the ocean acoustics skills gaps and challenges identified by the committee. Next is a summary of the five key findings of the Capranos and Magda study (2023) listed in order they appear in their report.

• The skills gap is increasing. The proportion of employers who believe that their employees have a skills gap with respect to their work duties increased from before to after COVID-19.
• Recruiting and retaining talent long term is a challenge.
• Alternative credentials are gaining on the traditional 4-year college degree. Employers are increasingly valuing relevant work experience, certificates, and digital badges/microcredentials in addition to, or in place of, college degrees.
• Upskilling current employees is a priority for addressing skills gaps. Organizations are addressing the skills gap by supporting both traditional and innovative education/training opportunities. Employee work benefits have been expanded to include financing toward 4- year university, technical, community college, and vocational school programs.
• Demand for technical skills is evolving too fast for companies to keep up. Technical expertise related to technology operation/maintenance and data processing (also known as “hard skills”) has a shelf life of 2 years or fewer. Soft skills, such as problem solving, time management, and adapting to change, are also now required. Hard skills in ocean acoustics, which are not to be confused or equated with topical fundamentals and theory (i.e., calculus, physics, signal processing), are acquired through a higher education program; this educational knowledge is the backbone of technical expertise that does not become obsolete over time. The rapid evolution of technology and associated hard skills is especially relevant for the ocean acoustics community.

Nationally, the post-pandemic workforce is different from the pre-COVID norm (Capranos and Magda, 2023). When society was unexpectedly forced into alternative work and education modes due to COVID restrictions, innovations in virtual communications and connections rapidly increased. The capacity to conduct meaningful work remotely or engage in distance education programs became the norm in a very short time. Emerging from personal and professional distancing, the post-pandemic work and education landscape has provided both unique challenges and opportunities. This analysis of the nation’s challenges related to workforce performance and demand provides a timely opportunity for the ocean acoustics community to simultaneously address its present and future workforce needs. The committee has identified many parallels between the needs of and concerns for the future workforce in ocean acoustics that are consistent with national workforce needs at large.

GAPS BETWEEN EDUCATION AND TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES AND WORKFORCE NEEDS

After comparing the current and future workforce demands (see Chapter 4) against the available education and training opportunities (see Chapter 3), the committee found several areas where education or training programs do not meet the current or expected future workforce needs based on its evaluation of information-gathering panel discussions and survey results. It identified 15 gaps from the misalignment of needs and opportunities and grouped them into three categories: (1) programmatic gaps related to the availability of education and training programs, (2) curriculum gaps pertaining to specific ocean acoustics content in current and future programs, and (3) awareness gaps associated with the lack of educational awareness of career pathways related to ocean acoustics and the value it provides to science and society. The next section of this chapter presents the gaps by category, identified by the subsection heading. The subsections provide a discussion of the gap and the committee’s conclusion and/or recommendations related to it.

Common among gaps in all three categories is the need for increased investment (e.g., fiscal, infrastructure, coordination) and consistency, which refers to how frequently ocean acoustics academic content is offered. Despite the many opportunities for education and training in ocean acoustics, employers often fail to recruit and retain talent in the workforce because of inconsistency in the frequency with which training, programs, and courses are offered.

Increased investment by federal agencies or industry into institutions of higher education can promote ocean acoustics through close connections between research and applications and increasing awareness of the field. An example of investment by DoD was the SECNAV/CNO Chair of Oceanographic Science program discussed in Chapter 2. Developing federal- or industry-sponsored chaired positions or similar designations can provide direct connections between the funder and sponsored researcher and help to translate between ocean acoustics research at institutes of higher education and operational or real-world applications and workforce expertise. Similarly, these sponsored positions would provide the funding industry or agency a direct relationship with the research institute to steer research programs and increase awareness of ocean acoustics programs through guaranteed funding for research and student support.

Programmatic Gaps

The committee identified six programmatic gaps from its analysis of data collected from survey results, information-gathering panel discussions, and its knowledge on current and future workforce needs and education and training opportunities. These gaps address the availability of education and training programs to provide necessary skills for a robust ocean acoustics workforce across all levels, from technicians to advanced researchers.

Alternative Credentialing Programs for Practical Ocean Acoustics Training

Few community colleges and vocational schools—settings other than the traditional 4-year undergraduate programs—offer degrees, certificates, microcredentials, and training programs aimed at developing skill sets specific to ocean acoustics technology, such as acoustic calibration, operation, analysis, and data management. During the committee’s information-gathering panels, industry and academic representatives noted a lack of prospective employees who have practical training in ocean acoustics technology and data management. Programs at the vocational or A.S. level can meet this demand. For example, programs that offer an A.S. in marine technology (see Chapter 5) could include acoustics or ocean acoustics courses or content in the curriculum to provide graduates these practical skills.

In addition to including practical training in ocean acoustics technology at vocational and 2-year programs, increasing training programs, discussed in Chapter 3, can provide hands-on experiences with technology relevant to the current workforce. Expanding on-the-job training or more formal workshops, short courses, and tutorials can meet the workforce needs noted by industry and academic representatives.

Credentialing Ocean-Acoustics-Related Expertise and Skills of Military Service Members

Military training programs, such as those at the Submarine Learning Center, provide ocean-acoustics-related education and training to USN officers and enlisted personnel. Those admitted must pass a battery of tests showing foundational knowledge in math and physics. Service members gain valuable knowledge in the physics of ocean sound and training through operational and troubleshooting experience with acoustic technologies. Programs such as DoD SkillBridge¹ are critical to retaining the knowledge gained through military service in the civilian workforce, and skills gained on the job still need to be properly credentialed to translate military ocean acoustics expertise into the civilian workforce.

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¹ The SkillBridge program offers separating military service members the opportunity to intern at a civilian organization during their last 6 months on active duty.

Coordinated Workforce- and Stakeholder-Specific Training in Non-military Applications

An educational foundation rooted in math, physics, and/or engineering is often required for ocean acoustics positions, but training for specific mission-driven stakeholder groups remains lacking. Many training opportunities are focused on military applications, yet regulators, bioacousticians, marine technicians, and law enforcement (including some USCG members) all have needs that differ from those of the military. For example, a broad training for law enforcement could be developed as a consistently offered course or workshop that includes content on the operation of different sonar and echosounder systems, which are commonly used in search-and-rescue or recovery operations. Similarly, coordinated education and training opportunities at the intersection of ocean acoustics and management and policy are in demand. Few programs target the needs of regulatory organizations, such as NMFS and BOEM.

Connection Between Highly Technical Programs and More Conceptual or Applied Programs

Communication needs to be increased between students and communities in highly technical programs and those in more conceptual and applied programs (see Chapter 3 for discussion of conceptual programs). Programs that bridge the quantitative and conceptual components of ocean acoustics will help catalyze the education of professionals who can meet current and future workforce demands across a diversity of acoustic technology applications. Ocean acoustics education and training programs, with a variety of missions and goals, target audiences across a wide spectrum of professions. Most programs offer highly technical content and provide quantitative knowledge to conduct advanced research in specific subdomains of ocean acoustics. Fewer programs offer conceptual information aimed at providing high-level, contextual understanding of ocean acoustics topics that are crucial in fields such as environmental policy and ocean mapping.

Ocean Acoustics Community-Building Programs to Strengthen Cohesion and Promote the Perception of Ocean Acoustics as a Field with a Broad Range of Opportunities

The interdisciplinary nature of ocean acoustics, and its scattered presence across U.S. educational institutions, has made it challenging to build a cohesive and inclusive community composed of professionals (broadly defined as researchers, practitioners, policy makers, etc.) and students. In the higher education sector, as discussed in the Formal Education section of Chapter 3, each individual institution typically has few researchers, educators, and students. The situation is similar in non-defense government agencies. Connections across institutions and organizations engaged in ocean acoustics often rely on personal networks established by individuals through their own educational and professional journeys. This may inadvertently convey that it is a niche field with limited career options. Participant-driven community-building programs, such as the wide range of “unconferences,” where the meeting agenda and program are created collectively by participants rather than developed beforehand, can engage new community members and disseminate knowledge and techniques.

Experiential Learning Programs to Foster a Connected and Inclusive Ocean Acoustics Community

Participants in experiential learning programs develop not only ocean acoustics hands-on skills but also professional and personal relationships. Short courses and training programs, such as those discussed in the Training section of Chapter 3, allow for important professional relationship-building and opportunities for connections

beyond an individual’s home institution or organization. However, as these programs are typically offered in a condensed form, with materials delivered through lectures during brief events (e.g., often 1 week or less), it can be challenging to nurture robust community connections.

Widening their availability and advertising them extensively are essential to fostering a more connected and inclusive ocean acoustics community. In addition, the community would benefit from these programs being consistently offered for more frequent and regular opportunities for professional interactions.

Curriculum Gaps

The committee identified, through analysis of data presented in previous chapters, three areas where content provided in current education programs from K–12 through terminal higher-degree programs can be addressed to directly support the growth of an ocean acoustics workforce. The following sections identify each gap, with the committee’s recommendations and conclusions.

Acoustics or Ocean Acoustic Content in K–12 Curricula

The lack of content related to acoustics, or more specifically ocean acoustics, in K–12 curricula prevents early awareness of ocean sound. The K–12 period is a critical time for children to develop career aspirations. Acoustics, if covered at all, is usually introduced in physical science or physics courses (if they are offered) during K–12 education. The pioneering physics curricula developed in the 1970s by McDermott (Meltzer and Otero, 2015) for elementary and secondary teachers did not include acoustics, an omission that persists today. Only about one-third of graduating high schoolers have even taken a physical science or physics class. Due to the Physics First movement, which emphasizes physics without mathematics, many of these students took this course in 9th grade. Far fewer than one-third of high-school students have been exposed to acoustics in their science courses.

Most of the education and training material available for the committee to assess resides at the level of higher education. All sectors of the ocean acoustics community consulted conveyed a need to integrate the concepts into K–12 education to stimulate interest and awareness of the field. Including ocean acoustics content as part of science, environment, conservation, or even arts/music curricula would provide awareness of career opportunities before the college experience.

It is recognized that K–12 curricula are iterative to keep pace with evolving content on standardized tests and assessments and have little room for incorporating additional content. However, there are opportunities to include the topic of ocean acoustics in K–12 education by (1) providing teacher professional development that includes ocean acoustics content and guidance for integrating it into existing curricula, (2) establishing partnerships between ocean acousticians and K–12 teachers and classrooms, (3) including real-life examples of underwater sound in current K–12 curricula (e.g., as examples or homework problems in physics, earth science, or common sensory modalities, such as sound, temperature, and pressure), and (4) leveraging extracurricular programs at marine-science-focused high schools (Appendix D).

Expanding Higher Education Curriculum, Guidelines, and Teaching Materials

A clear set of curriculum guidelines or a collection of recommended teaching materials for higher education students interested in ocean acoustics and related applications does not exist. This is especially true for 2- to 4-year colleges, which contribute substantially to shaping an individual’s career path. Such guiding materials are needed for both students intending to develop professional competency in core quantitative ocean acoustics topics and those interested in a broad conceptual understanding of the field. They should also benefit students who apply ocean acoustics knowledge in other fields, particularly those at the intersection of STEM and social sciences.

Ocean Acoustics Content in First- Through Third-Year Undergraduate Programs

There is an absence of ocean acoustics content in the first through third years of many 4-year undergraduate programs. This delay is related to the nature of necessary core knowledge, which requires students to first complete foundational courses in mathematics, physics, and engineering. The large number of prerequisite courses leading to upper-level electives often prevents these undergraduates from taking electives that would expose them to acoustics in general and ocean acoustics specifically. In addition, careers in acoustics may not be obvious from the prerequisite coursework, making it less likely that a student considers pursuing acoustics study or an acoustics-related career. Only a few 4-year undergraduate programs do offer hands-on experience with ocean acoustics instrumentation or measurements in the first few years. A conceptual understanding of ocean acoustics and its applications, however, does not require full, formal, quantitative training in these subjects. The conceptual approach can serve as an entrée to ocean acoustics and raise awareness of career options. For students in less technical majors, conceptual, non-math-focused materials in their required courses will introduce the many applications of acoustics and its importance. For example, the conceptual knowledge of ocean acoustics is crucial for environmental policy makers charged with devising scientifically informed regulations for noise in the ocean. Similarly, in physical sciences and engineering courses, it would connect students’ technical background with practical applications and expose them to opportunities for research at the graduate level.

Expansion of Technical Ocean Acoustics Topics

Meeting the technical needs of the future ocean acoustics workforce will require exposing students to a broader range of topics than those typically covered. Topics such as foundational physics and math courses, fundamentals of acoustics and wave propagation, along with signal processing, and underwater acoustics are routinely covered (see Chapter 3). Additional topics including marine bioacoustics, acoustic propagation and soundscape modeling, AI, ML, and data science, numerical modeling and analysis, scientific computing, and data management were identified as areas needing more curriculum content. A laboratory, design, or field-based (in or on the water) course offered early in the undergraduate curriculum would expose students to the practical applications of ocean acoustics theory, provide opportunities for hands-on troubleshooting and problem solving, and introduce students to potential career paths.

• Effects of Sound and Bioacoustics: Marine bioacoustics² requires knowledge of sound propagation between a source/producer and a receiver when either is an animal. Because sound is so critical to aquatic life for communication, foraging, mating, and sensing the environment, knowledge related to marine bioacoustics is tightly linked to understanding the effects of human-generated sound on aquatic animals.

Several institutions offer courses in acoustics at the undergraduate and graduate levels, but gaps exist in formal curriculum offerings on such interdisciplinary topics as bioacoustics. Very few programs have faculty trained in the physics of sound propagation and interaction with the environment and the bioacoustics/behavioral effects on marine animals required to provide education and training in this specialized topic. In Table 30 of the survey report, one of the biggest curriculum gaps identified was the understanding of the effects of sound on the

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² Marine bioacoustics covers a wide range of topics related to how sound in the ocean is used by marine life and used to study it, including aspects of hearing, communication, remote sensing of marine life, and animal behavior.

environment, which requires knowledge in bioacoustics (skill needed, 52.5 percent; current opportunity for skill development, 22.5 percent).

• Acoustic Propagation and Soundscape Modeling: Acoustic propagation and soundscape modeling are vital to almost all aspects of ocean sound, from military uses in assessing sonar performance to regulators tasked with assessing the impact of sound on marine life. In Table 30 of the survey report, the largest curriculum gap (35 percent) identified was related to this topic: 80 percent of responses identified that these skills are needed in the workforce, but only 45 percent noted current opportunities for skills development. Most academic units hosting acoustics or ocean acoustics courses reside in engineering colleges (see Table 3-1). Few programs that have specialized capabilities in both the physics of sound and the marine environment, which are pertinent to how highly variable oceanographic processes impact the soundscape and propagation characteristics. More cross-academic unit exchanges or collaborations specifically on these interdisciplinary topics should be pursued.
• AI, ML, and Data Science: Ocean acoustics, like many other scientific disciplines, is witnessing rapid growth in the use of ML techniques and AI (Michalopoulou et al., 2021). Although most students in ocean acoustics programs have substantial quantitative training, the training in modern data science and related tools can vary considerably depending on the institution and program culture. To ensure that the power of these new ML and AI tools are fully leveraging data science techniques, it is essential to expand advanced training capability for students who already have a solid foundation in quantitative subjects. Of particular importance is the need to continue integrating physics-based models and data-driven approaches, as both are indispensable for addressing real-world challenges presented in ocean acoustics. Participant-driven workshops or programs (as addressed in Programmatic Gaps) where knowledge and skills are shared and ideas are exchanged openly could catalyze this transformation. Such activities (e.g., University of Washington eScience Institute, 2023) have proven to be effective in engaging new users and building a community of diverse backgrounds in highly interdisciplinary fields.³
• Numerical modeling and analysis supported by high-capacity computing: Modeling and data analysis in ocean acoustics are inherently complex and demanding of computing resources. In the past, researchers have typically reduced the number of variables considered in models and focused only on the dominant mechanisms to minimize computing resources. To address the growing demand for accurate interpretation of real-world data, modeling of acoustic phenomena must evolve to include more complexities and processes. Despite the increased availability of high-capacity computing resources, including traditional high-performance computing systems and the emerging cloud computing platforms, a significant gap exists within the ocean acoustics community in fully understanding and harnessing these advanced tools. Formal curricula in degree programs and short courses focused on training seasoned researchers and practitioners are necessary to ensure that the broad ocean acoustics workforce will be able to effectively use new technologies and computing methodologies.
• Best practices in scientific computing: Ocean acoustics researchers and practitioners regularly develop code to solve problems, whether to model sound propagation in the stratified ocean or analyze sounds received from an array of hydrophones. However, the assimilation of best practices in scientific computing generally lags other STEM disciplines, despite the broad availability of numerous modern tools developed in the past decade. One example is version control software, such as Git, and commercially operated but open platforms, such as GitHub and GitLab, that build on Git. This combination has helped to create a collaborative global network of scientists and software developers in computationally intensive disciplines and enabled integration of reproducible research concepts into day-to-day practices (Boettiger et al., 2015; Braga et al., 2023; Lowndes et al., 2017; PANGEO, 2023). Despite a modest uptick in the use of such tools, much widely used ocean acoustics software is still maintained and shared in a manner that does not readily support rapid and collaborative development (e.g., .zip files sent in private e-mails). In addition, many long standing and widely used acoustic data processing software packages are proprietary and expensive,

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³ https://oceanhackweek.org/about/index.html. Accessed January 2023.

• despite the recent surge of open-source software developments in different ocean acoustics subdomains. To encourage broader adoption of best practices in scientific computing and ocean acoustics approaches, particularly in environmental monitoring, the ocean acoustics community could provide training through both formal curricula in degree programs and training short courses.
• Data management: Data management was another area highlighted in the committee’s information-gathering sessions as critically needed expertise. This aligns with the broader trend observed across all major scientific disciplines (Borghi and Van Gulick, 2022), where the volume and diversity of data become both an opportunity and a challenge in terms of enabling effective research efforts. Ocean acoustic instruments, unlike many other oceanographic instruments, typically generate a high volume of data. Although the ocean acoustics community acknowledges that data access and sharing of long-term datasets are valuable for tracking patterns and trends and can alleviate the need to conduct new experiments, a gap remains in both the implementation and availability of training resources and guidelines for the incorporation of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reproducible) principles in curating ocean acoustics data. The CARE (Collective benefits, Authority control, Responsibility, and Ethics) Principles for Indigenous Data Governance (GIDA, 2023) complements the solely data-centric FAIR principles by introducing a social dimension to open data management practices, ensuring the inclusion of Indigenous Peoples in data governance to increase their access to, use of, and benefit from data (Jennings et al., 2023). The CARE Principles are also broadly applicable to the equitable and purposeful use of scientific data for the well-being of people (Carroll et al., 2021) and part of the United Nations Ocean Decade data and information strategy (UNESCO-IOC, 2023). This principle especially concerns data collected in regions traditionally governed and used by Indigenous communities. For example, Indigenous communities that conduct subsistence hunts of bowhead whales have deep expertise in and knowledge of migration patterns and pod behavior. When they share that knowledge with marine mammal acousticians, CARE Principles dictate that the contributions be appropriately acknowledged, the data be appropriately handled, and the communities have a role in determining how the data are used and released. Under CARE Principles, acousticians collecting new data on the whales should collaborate with the communities to ensure that data acquisition is conducted respectfully, with the consent of the communities and without disruption to subsistence activities. The new data should be shared promptly, in an accessible format, and with explanations that address questions that the Indigenous communities articulate.

Consistent Experiential Learning and Professional Development Opportunities

Chapter 3 highlights education and training opportunities, including internships, short courses, and tutorials. Survey results indicate that internships were beneficial for both the students and the companies that hosted the student interns (see Appendix B, Table 26). However, the internships, apprenticeships, or fellowships for student to expand and practice their ocean acoustics skills are limited. Information gathering also found that short courses, tutorials, and other professional development programs were offered inconsistently, which limits students’ ability to grow their ocean acoustics skills. Formal links between short courses and internships could provide better and more frequent training opportunities and also allow better connections between classroom knowledge and practical applications. Another way to offer more consistent experiential learning opportunities in ocean acoustics is to develop co-ops.

Ocean acoustics co-ops would be a beneficial addition to formal degree curricula for both students and industry. They allow a student to earn a salary while both obtaining experience in a specific workforce sector and earning college credit. Co-ops differ from internships in that most internships are volunteer and do not earn course credit toward a degree program. Typically, co-ops, which provide opportunities for experiential learning, are part of the formal curriculum in engineering programs, where undergraduates receive program credit for participation.

Developing ocean acoustics co-ops for students within engineering programs and extending the model to other departments would establish a pipeline of future employees directly training in ocean acoustics. The committee’s survey did not specifically ask about co-ops, but the benefits and attractiveness of internships can be applied to them.

Awareness Gaps

The final category of identified gaps between workforce needs and available education and training is the lack of knowledge about ocean acoustics career pathways and the value that ocean acoustics provides to society. Four awareness gaps were identified by the committee and are presented in subsequent subsections.

Limited Awareness of Diverse Career Pathways in Ocean Acoustics

K–12 students, parents, and teachers are not aware of the diversity of career pathways in topics related to ocean acoustics (see Chapter 5). Due to the lack of acoustics and ocean sound content within the curriculum, the career options and pathways are unknown.

Over 25 high schools nationwide (Appendix D) focus on marine science or maritime preparation programs. Outreach programs from higher education institutions offering ocean acoustics courses to those high schools or professional development for the teachers employed in those schools could raise the awareness of students and teachers about possible career paths related to the discipline and the competencies required for specific employment.

Mismatched Perception of Ocean Acoustics Career Requirements

The mismatch in perception and reality of ocean acoustics career options and educational requirements leads to low recruitment into the workforce.

• Diversity of workforce opportunities in ocean acoustics: There is a perception that only the military has a use for education and expertise in the acoustics workforce. Applications of ocean acoustics are now much more diverse, with careers including (1) bioacoustics related to regulation, management, or policy, and effects of sound related to industry health, safety, and environment; (2) site characterization of prospective energy lease areas; and (3) innovation in ocean technology. Although larger numbers of employees may be dedicated to ocean acoustics in the private sector and DoD-funded national laboratories, these sectors may have only limited communications with academia and civilian government. As a result, it can be confusing or even daunting to find a pathway to enter the field. This challenge may contribute to its image as highly specialized with limited career opportunities.
• Ocean acoustics career skills and on-the-job training opportunities: Some career options in ocean acoustics do not require highly specialized education and expertise in upper-level math, physics, and engineering. Many such positions are available and in demand in ocean acoustics and in the supporting disciplines of signal processing, data management, and marine technology. In positions where specialized expertise is required in the operation of technology or data processing, on-the-job training is often provided. Many oceanographic instrumentation companies also provide online training modules for their ocean acoustics products to both employees and clients.

Link Between Climate and Marine Ecosystem Science and Ocean Acoustics

The direct connections between climate and marine ecosystem sciences and ocean acoustics are not widely known outside the ocean acoustic community. The public and students at 2- and 4-year colleges are generally unaware of the increasingly important role that acoustic technologies play in providing crucial data and information about the ocean in the context of rapidly changing climate and marine ecosystems science. Chapter 2, Box 2-1 highlights examples of practical applications within climate and marine ecosystem sciences and typical tools used. Many students are interested in studying and addressing climate change but unaware that ocean acoustics programs could prepare them for impactful careers in these areas.

Public Knowledge of Ocean Acoustics Is Shaped by Negative Media Content

Negative media content about ocean sound outweighs public knowledge of its value to science, exploration, and society. A key challenge faced by ocean acoustics may be its initial development within a military context (Chapter 2), as well as past events in which military mid-frequency sonars may have affected marine life (Deruiter et al., 2013; Goldbogen et al., 2013; Tyack et al., 2011). Another challenge is that ocean acoustics information can be hard to convey to the public because the discipline involves measurements, units (e.g., source levels, sound exposure levels), and technologies that are not familiar to most people and are hard to explain to journalists or stakeholders during brief interactions. Ocean acoustics serves as one of the most effective means of observing and understanding marine life, in addition to being critical for measuring water depths, surveying for offshore energy, finding marine mineral resources, and mapping offshore hazards that jeopardize coastal populations. Box 2-1 provides other examples that illustrate the versatility of ocean acoustics techniques in various science and engineering applications.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONNECTION TO PREVIOUS OCEAN ACOUSTICS EDUCATION REPORTS

The work of this committee and the report built on the Lackie (1997) and COL (2018) reports on ocean acoustics education and expertise. As presented in Chapter 1, Tables 1-1 and 1-2, many recommendations from these reports are still applicable. Several of the committee’s recommendations closely relate to those from the Lackie and COL reports. This committee’s recommendations fall within four key classifications (program, curriculum, awareness, and diversity) and address the assessment of needs for ocean acoustics expertise, anticipated workforce demands, and need for additional training opportunities over the next decade. Recommendations from this report are listed in Table 6-1 in the order in which they appear in the text, along with their classification and whether they link to previous reports. The recommendations identify resources required to support research and education and preparation and recruitment of a diverse workforce. They were developed to provide stakeholders in higher education, government, industry, the ocean acoustics community, and professional societies actions to improve the quality of ocean acoustics education and training to meet the needs of the current and future workforce that requires ocean acoustics expertise and increase recruitment and retention of a diverse workforce. The workforce and field of study also have a continually changing landscape, and several committee recommendations address this. Significant efforts have been made in many areas of ocean acoustics education, but there continues to be a need for resources to ensure the workforce has the education and training necessary to meet future demands, especially related to the expanding marine technology sector, growth of the blue economy, and continued need for national defense and national security.