AAAS-FBI-UNICRI. 2014. National and Transnational Security Implications of Big Data in the Life Sciences. https://www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/AAAS-FBI-UNICRI_Big_Data_Report_111014.pdf.
“A Brief History of NSF and the Internet.” n.d. National Science Foundation. https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=103050 (accessed August 28, 2024).
“A Brief History of the Internet.” n.d. Board of Regents of the University System of Georgia. https://www.usg.edu/galileo/skills/unit07/internet07_02.phtml (accessed August 28, 2024).
Abramson, J., J. Adler, J. Dunger, R. Evans, T. Green, A. Pritzel, O. Ronneberger, L. Willmore, A. J. Ballard, J. Bambrick, S. W. Bodenstein, D. A. Evans, C.-C. Hung, M. O’Neill, D. Reiman, K. Tunyasuvunakool, Z. Wu, A. Žemgulytė, E. Arvaniti, C. Beattie, O. Bertolli, A. Bridgland, A. Cherepanov, M. Congreve, A. I. Cowen-Rivers, A. Cowie, M. Figurnov, F. B. Fuchs, H. Gladman, R. Jain, Y. A. Khan, C. M. R. Low, K. Perlin, A. Potapenko, P. Savy, S. Singh, A. Stecula, A. Thillaisundaram, C. Tong, S. Yakneen, E. D. Zhong, M. Zielinski, A. Žídek, V. Bapst, P. Kohli, M. Jaderberg, D. Hassabis, and J. M. Jumper. 2024. Accurate structure prediction of biomolecular interactions with AlphaFold 3. Nature 630 (8016):493-500. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07487-w.
Acosta, J. N., G. J. Falcone, P. Rajpurkar, and E. J. Topol. 2022. Multimodal biomedical AI. Nature Medicine 28(9):1773-1784. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-022-01981-2.
Air Force Research Laboratory. 2023. Biocement for Agile Infrastructure. https://afresearchlab.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/AFRL_Biocementation_FS_1023_Final.pdf.
Akçakaya, M., B. Yaman, H. Chung, and J. C. Ye. 2022. Unsupervised deep learning methods for biological image reconstruction and enhancement: An overview from a signal processing perspective. IEEE Signal Processing Magazine 39(2):28-44. https://doi.org/10.1109/MSP.2021.3119273.
Anthropic. 2023. Anthropic’s Responsible Scaling Policy. https://www-cdn.anthropic.com/1adf000c8f675958c2ee23805d91aaade1cd4613/responsible-scaling-policy.pdf (accessed October 9, 2024).
Appleton, E., C. Madsen, N. Roehner, and D. Densmore. 2017. Design automation in synthetic biology. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives on Biology 9(4). https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a023978.
Arditi, A., O. Obeso, A. Syed, D. Paleka, N. Panickssery, W. Gurnee, and N. Nanda. 2024. Refusal in language models is mediated by a single direction. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2406.11717.
“Assessing and Navigating Biosecurity Concerns and Benefits of Artificial Intelligence Use in the Life Sciences.” n.d. https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/assessing-and-navigating-biosecurity-concerns-and-benefits-of-artificial-intelligence-use-in-the-life-sciences (accessed August 22, 2024).
ATTC. 2022. “Improving Accuracy and Reproducibility in Life Science Research.” https://www.atcc.org/resources/white-papers/improving-accuracy-and-reproducibility-in-life-science-research (accessed December 8, 2024).
AWS Events. 2023. “Cloud Foundations for Digital R&D: Building Connected Labs that Scale” YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TAOX6AAs3Ks.
Bajwa, J., U. Munir, A. Nori, and B. Williams. 2021. Artificial intelligence in healthcare: Transforming the practice of medicine. Future Healthcare Journal 8(2):e188-e194. https://doi.org/10.7861/fhj.2021-0095.
Baker, M. 2016. 1,500 scientists lift the lid on reproducibility. Nature 533(7604):452-454. https://doi.org/10.1038/533452a.
Bard, J. B. L., and S. Y. Rhee. 2004. Ontologies in biology: Design, applications and future challenges. Nature Reviews Genetics 5(3):213-222. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg1295.
Barroso, A. 2019. The changing profile of the U.S. military: Smaller in size, more diverse, more women in leadership. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/09/10/the-changing-profile-of-the-u-s-military/ (accessed December 8, 2024).
Berg, P. 2004. Asilomar and recombinant DNA. Nobel Prize Outreach AB 2024.
---. 2008. Asilomar 1975: DNA modification secured. Nature 455(7211):290-291. https://doi.org/10.1038/455290a.
Berger, K. M., and P. A. Schneck. 2019. National and transnational security implications of asymmetric access to and use of biological data. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2019.00021.
Berger-Wolf, T., D. I. Rubenstein, C. V. Stewart, J. A. Holmberg, J. Parham, S. Menon, J. Crall, J. V. Oast, E. Kiciman, and L. Joppa. 2017. Wildbook: Crowdsourcing, computer vision, and data science for conservation. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1710.08880.
“Biological Data Standards Cluster.” n.d. Earth Science Information Partners. https://wiki.esipfed.org/Biological_Data_Standards_Cluster (accessed August 28, 2024).
Bipartisan Commission on Biodefense. 2021. The Apollo Program for Biodefense: Winning the Race Against Biological Threats. Washington, DC: Bipartisan Commission on Biodefense. https://biodefensecommission.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Apollo_report_final_v8_033121_web.pdf.
Birrell, P. J., G. Ketsetzis, N. J. Gay, B. S. Cooper, A. M. Presanis, R. J. Harris, A. Charlett, X.-S. Zhang, P. J. White, R. G. Pebody, and D. De Angelis. 2011. Bayesian modeling to unmask and predict influenza A/H1N1pdm dynamics in London. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108(45):18238-18243. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1103002108.
Boiko, D. A., R. MacKnight, B. Kline, and G. Gomes. 2023. Autonomous chemical research with large language models. Nature 624 (7992):570-578. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06792-0.
Bose, P. 2024. “How Cloud Labs and Remote Research Shape Science.” TheScientist. Accessed October 15. https://www.the-scientist.com/how-cloud-labs-and-remote-research-shape-science-71734.
Branstetter, B. K., and J. M. Sills. 2022. Mechanisms of auditory masking in marine mammals. Animal Cognition 25(5):1029-1047. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-022-01671-z.
Business Wire. 2024. “Twist Bioscience Announces Participation in Department of Commerce Consortium Dedicated to AI Safety.” https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20240604321380/en/.
Callaway, E. 2024. Major AlphaFold upgrade offers boost for drug discovery. Nature 629(8012):509-510. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-01383-z.
Carbonell, P. 2021. Chapter 5 - Synthetic biology design tools for metabolic engineering. In Microbial Cell Factories Engineering for Production of Biomolecules, edited by Vijai Singh, pp. 65-77. Academic Press.
Carter, S. R., N. E. Wheeler, S. Chwalek, C. R. Isaac, and J. Yassif. 2023. “The Convergence of Artificial Intelligence and the Life Sciences: Safeguarding Technology, Rethinking Governance, and Preventing Catastrophe.” Nuclear Threat Initiative. https://www.nti.org/analysis/articles/the-convergence-of-artificial-intelligence-and-the-life-sciences/.
Carter, S. R., S. Curtis, C. Emerson, J. Gray, I. C. Haydon, A. Hebbeler, C. Qureshi, N. Randolph, A. Rives, and L. Stuart. 2024. “Community Values, Guiding Principles, and Commitments for the Responsible Development of AI for Protein Design.” Responsible AI x Biodesign. https://responsiblebiodesign.ai/.
Chan, H. C. S., H. Shan, T. Dahoun, H. Vogel, and S. Yuan. 2019. Advancing drug discovery via artificial intelligence. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 40(8):592-604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2019.06.004.
Chang, Y., X. Wang, J. Wang, Y. Wu, L. Yang, K. Zhu, H. Chen, X. Yi, C. Wang, Y. Wang, W. Ye, Y. Zhang, Y. Chang, and P. S. Yu. 2023. A survey on evaluation of large language models. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2307.03109.
Chorlton, S. D. 2024. Ten common issues with reference sequence databases and how to mitigate them. Frontiers in Bioinformatics 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbinf.2024.1278228.
Chretien, C. J.-P. n.d. “Epigenetic CHaracterization and Observation (ECHO).” Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. https://www.darpa.mil/program/epigenetic-characterization-and-observation (accessed August 19, 2024).
Christiano, P., H. Karnofsky, and C. Painter. 2023. “Responsible Scaling Policies (RSPs).” METR (blog), METR. October 9. https://metr.org/blog/2023-09-26-rsp/.
CMU Cloud Lab. 2021. “Why Use a Cloud Laboratory: Advantages of a Cloud Laboratory Over the Traditional Laboratory.” CMU Cloud Lab. https://events.mcs.cmu.edu/cloud-lab-information-sessions/wp-content/uploads/sites/24/2021/09/why_use_cloud_lab.pdf (accessed October 15, 2024).
Collins, F. S., and H. Varmus. 2015. A new initiative on precision medicine. New England Journal of Medicine 372(9):793-795. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp1500523.
Congress.gov. 2021. Text - S.1605 - 117th Congress (2021-2022): National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2022.
Cook-Deegan, R. M. 1994. The Gene Wars: Science, Politics, and the Human Genome. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.
Cramer, E. Y., E. L. Ray, V. K. Lopez, J. Bracher, A. Brennen, A. J. Castro Rivadeneira, A. Gerding, T. Gneiting, K. H. House, Y. Huang, D. Jayawardena, A. H. Kanji, A. Khandelwal, K. Le, A. Mühlemann, J. Niemi, A. Shah, A. Stark, Y. Wang, N. Wattanachit, M. W. Zorn, Y. Gu, S. Jain, N. Bannur, A. Deva, M. Kulkarni, S. Merugu, A. Raval, S. Shingi, A. Tiwari, J. White, N. F. Abernethy, S. Woody, M. Dahan, S. Fox, K. Gaither, M. Lachmann, L. A. Meyers, J. G. Scott, M. Tec, A. Srivastava, G. E. George, J. C. Cegan, I. D. Dettwiller, W. P. England, M. W. Farthing, R. H. Hunter, B. Lafferty, I. Linkov, M. L. Mayo, M. D. Parno, M. A. Rowland, B. D. Trump, Y. Zhang-James, S. Chen, S. V. Faraone, J. Hess, C. P. Morley, A. Salekin, D. Wang, S. M. Corsetti, T. M. Baer, M. C. Eisenberg, K. Falb, Y. Huang, E. T. Martin, E. McCauley, R. L. Myers, T. Schwarz, D. Sheldon, G. C. Gibson, R. Yu, L. Gao, Y. Ma, D. Wu, X. Yan, X. Jin, Y.-X. Wang, Y. Chen, L. Guo, Y. Zhao, Q. Gu, J. Chen, L. Wang, P. Xu, W. Zhang, D. Zou, H. Biegel, J. Lega, S. McConnell, V. P. Nagraj, S. L. Guertin, C. Hulme-Lowe, S. D. Turner, Y. Shi, X. Ban, R. Walraven, Q.-J. Hong, S. Kong, A. van de Walle, J. A. Turtle, M. Ben-Nun, S. Riley, P. Riley, U. Koyluoglu, D. DesRoches, P. Forli, B. Hamory, C. Kyriakides, H. Leis, J. Milliken, M. Moloney, J. Morgan, N. Nirgudkar, G. Ozcan, N. Piwonka, M. Ravi, C. Schrader, E. Shakhnovich, D. Siegel, R. Spatz, C. Stiefeling, B. Wilkinson, A. Wong, S. Cavany, G. España,
S. Moore, R. Oidtman, A. Perkins, D. Kraus, A. Kraus, Z. Gao, J. Bian, W. Cao, J. Lavista Ferres, C. Li, T.-Y. Liu, X. Xie, S. Zhang, S. Zheng, A. Vespignani, M. Chinazzi, J. T. Davis, K. Mu, A. Pastore y Piontti, X. Xiong, A. Zheng, J. Baek, V. Farias, A. Georgescu, R. Levi, D. Sinha, J. Wilde, G. Perakis, M. A. Bennouna, D. Nze-Ndong, D. Singhvi, I. Spantidakis, L. Thayaparan, A. Tsiourvas, A. Sarker, A. Jadbabaie, D. Shah, N. Della Penna, L. A. Celi, S. Sundar, R. Wolfinger, D. Osthus, L. Castro, G. Fairchild, I. Michaud, D. Karlen, M. Kinsey, L. C. Mullany, K. Rainwater-Lovett, L. Shin, K. Tallaksen, S. Wilson, E. C. Lee, J. Dent, K. H. Grantz, A. L. Hill, J. Kaminsky, K. Kaminsky, L. T. Keegan, S. A. Lauer, J. C. Lemaitre, J. Lessler, H. R. Meredith, J. Perez-Saez, S. Shah, C. P. Smith, S. A. Truelove, J. Wills, M. Marshall, L. Gardner, K. Nixon, J. C. Burant, L. Wang, L. Gao, Z. Gu, M. Kim, X. Li, G. Wang, Y. Wang, S. Yu, R. C. Reiner, R. Barber, E. Gakidou, S. I. Hay, S. Lim, C. Murray, D. Pigott, H. L. Gurung, P. Baccam, S. A. Stage, B. T. Suchoski, B. A. Prakash, B. Adhikari, J. Cui, A. Rodríguez, A. Tabassum, J. Xie, P. Keskinocak, J. Asplund, A. Baxter, B. E. Oruc, N. Serban, S. O. Arik, M. Dusenberry, A. Epshteyn, E. Kanal, L. T. Le, C.-L. Li, T. Pfister, D. Sava, R. Sinha, T. Tsai, N. Yoder, J. Yoon, L. Zhang, S. Abbott, N. I. Bosse, S. Funk, J. Hellewell, S. R. Meakin, K. Sherratt, M. Zhou, R. Kalantari, T. K. Yamana, S. Pei, J. Shaman, M. L. Li, D. Bertsimas, O. Skali Lami, S. Soni, H. Tazi Bouardi, T. Ayer, M. Adee, J. Chhatwal, O. O. Dalgic, M. A. Ladd, B. P. Linas, P. Mueller, J. Xiao, Y. Wang, Q. Wang, S. Xie, D. Zeng, A. Green, J. Bien, L. Brooks, A. J. Hu, M. Jahja, D. McDonald, B. Narasimhan, C. Politsch, S. Rajanala, A. Rumack, N. Simon, R. J. Tibshirani, R. Tibshirani, V. Ventura, L. Wasserman, E. B. O’Dea, J. M. Drake, R. Pagano, Q. T. Tran, L. S. T. Ho, H. Huynh, J. W. Walker, R. B. Slayton, M. A. Johansson, M. Biggerstaff, and N. G. Reich. 2022. Evaluation of individual and ensemble probabilistic forecasts of COVID-19 mortality in the United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119(15):e2113561119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2113561119.
da Silva, R. G. L. 2024. The advancement of artificial intelligence in biomedical research and health innovation: Challenges and opportunities in emerging economies. Globalization and Health 20(1):44. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-024-01049-5.
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. 2018. “Dialing Up the Body’s Defenses Against Public Health and National Security Threats.” https://www.darpa.mil/news-events/2018-05-25.
---. 2021. “DARPA Successfully Transitions Synthetic Biomanufacturing Technologies to Support National Security Objectives.” https://www.darpa.mil/news-events/2021-12-08.
Department for Science, Innovation and Technology and The Rt. Hon. M. Donelan. 2023. “Leading Frontier AI Companies Publish Safety Policies.” https://www.gov.uk/government/news/leading-frontier-ai-companies-publish-safety-policies (accessed December 8, 2024).
Diamond Light Source. 2023. “How Moths Create Invisibility Cloaks Preventing Detection by Predators Using Biosonar.” https://phys.org/news/2023-06-moths-invisibility-cloaks-predators-biosonar.html#google_vignette (accessed December 8, 2024).
DiEuliis, D., V. Rao, E. A. Billings, C. B. Meyer, and K. Berger. 2019. Biodefense policy analysis—A systems-based approach. Health Security 17(2):83-99. https://doi.org/10.1089/hs.2018.0082.
Donkor, S. A., M. E. Walsh, and A. J. Titus. 2024. Computing in the life sciences: From early algorithms to modern AI.” q-bio.OT. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2406.12108.
Dragan, A., H. King, and A. Dafoe. 2024. “Introducing the Frontier Safety Framework.” Google DeepMind. https://deepmind.google/discover/blog/introducing-the-frontier-safety-framework/ (accessed October 9, 2024).
Dua, M., A. Singh, N. Sethunathan, and A. K. Johri. 2002. Biotechnology and bioremediation: Successes and limitations. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 59(2-3):143-52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-002-1024-6.
Edwards, P. 2022. “Bio-cement from Algae.” Global Cement Magazine. https://www.globalcement.com/magazine/articles/1272-bio-cement-from-algae.
EvolutionaryScale. 2024. “ESM3: Simulating 500 Million Years of Evolution with a Language Model.” EvolutionaryScale. https://www.evolutionaryscale.ai/blog/esm3-release#responsible-development (accessed October 9, 2024).
Farid, M., W. Sarfraz, Z. u. Z. Asam, M. Abbas, F. A. Sattar, K. Asif, S. Abbas, M. Iqbal, Z. Afgun, and A. Afzal. 2023. Role of Biotechnology in Management of Solid Waste. In Climate-Resilient Agriculture, Vol 2: Agro-Biotechnological Advancement for Crop Production, edited by Mirza Hasanuzzaman, pp. 713-732. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Feffer, M., A. Sinha, W. H. Deng, Z. C. Lipton, and H. Heidari. 2024. Red-teaming for generative AI: Silver bullet or security theater? arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2401.15897.
Galanie, S., K. Thodey, I. J. Trenchard, M. Filsinger Interrante, and C. D. Smolke. 2015. Complete biosynthesis of opioids in yeast. Science 349(6252):1095-1100. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac9373.
Gambhir, S. S., T. J. Ge, O. Vermesh, and R. Spitler. 2018. Toward achieving precision health. Science Translational Medicine 10(430). https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.aao3612.
Gamble, H. R., and D. S. Zarlenga. 1986. Biotechnology in the development of vaccines for animal parasites. Veterinary Parasitology 20(1):237-250. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4017(86)90103-2.
Ganjalizadeh, V., G. G. Meena, M. A. Stott, A. R. Hawkins, and H. Schmidt. 2023. Machine learning at the edge for AI-enabled multiplexed pathogen detection. Scientific Reports 13(1):4744. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31694-6.
Gauthier, J., A. T. Vincent, S. J. Charette, and N. Derome. 2018. A brief history of bioinformatics. Briefings in Bioinformatics 20(6):1981-1996. https://doi.org/10.1093/bib/bby063.
Gibbons, H. S., and A. M. Crumbley. 2024. Accelerating transition of biotechnology products for military supply chains. Joint Force Quarterly (113).
Gorki, V., and B. Medhi. 2024. Use of artificial intelligence in vaccine development against pathogens: Challenges and future directions. Indian Journal of Pharmacology 56(2):77-79. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijp.ijp_259_24.
Graham, I. 2010. “Air Force Scientists Test, Develop Bio Jet Fuels.” Air Force. https://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/117145/.
Gu, J.-D. 2021. On environmental biotechnology of bioremediation. Applied Environmental Biotechnology 5:3-8. https://doi.org/10.26789/AEB.2020.02.002.
“History of GIS.” n.d. ESRI. https://www.esri.com/en-us/what-is-gis/history-of-gis (accessed August 28, 2024).
Horowitz, M. C. 2016. The ethics & morality of robotic warfare: Assessing the debate over autonomous weapons. Dædalus 145(4):25-36. https://doi.org/10.1162/DAED_a_00409.
Hunter, P. 2021. Technical bias and the reproducibility crisis: The problem of systemic errors resulting from artefacts of equipment, methods or dataset has been underappreciated. EMBO Reports 22(2):e52327. https://doi.org/10.15252/embr.202052327.
Hutson, M. 2023. Hypotheses devised by AI could find ‘blind spots’ in research. Nature. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-03596-0.
Ibrahim, L., S. Huang, L. Ahmad, and M. Anderljung. 2024. Beyond static AI evaluations: Advancing human interaction evaluations for LLM harms and risks. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2405.10632.
Inan, H., K. Upasani, J. Chi, R. Rungta, K. Iyer, Y. Mao, M. Tontchev, Q. Hu, B. Fuller, D. Testuggine, and M. Khabsa. 2023. Llama guard: LLM-based input-output safeguard for human-AI conversations. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2312.06674.
Inflection AI. 2023. “Our Policy on Frontier Safety.” https://inflection.ai/frontier-safety (accessed October 9, 2024).
Interagency Working Group on Data for the Bioeconomy. 2023. Visions, Needs, and Proposed Actions for Data for the Bioeconomy Initiative. National Science and Technology Council (Office of Science and Technology Policy). https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/FINAL-Data-for-the-Bioeconomy-Initiative-Report.pdf.
Jain, A., J. R. Brooks, C. C. Alford, C. S. Chang, N. M. Mueller, C. A. Umscheid, and A. S. Bierman. 2023. Awareness of racial and ethnic bias and potential solutions to address bias with use of health care algorithms.” JAMA Health Forum 4(6):e231197-e231197. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamahealthforum.2023.1197.
Jaiswal, M., and S. Srivastava. 2024. A review on sustainable approach of bioleaching of precious metals from electronic wastes. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 14:100435. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2024.100435.
Ji, X., M. Yang, A. Wan, S. Yu, and Z. Yao. 2022. Bioleaching of typical electronic waste-printed circuit boards (WPCBs): A short review.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127508.
Jin, T., and B. M. Savoie. 2024. Deductive machine learning challenges and opportunities in chemical applications. Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering 15:343-360. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-100722-111917.
Jumper, J., R. Evans, A. Pritzel, T. Green, M. Figurnov, O. Ronneberger, K. Tunyasuvunakool, R. Bates, A. Žídek, A. Potapenko, A. Bridgland, C. Meyer, S. A. A. Kohl, A. J. Ballard, A. Cowie, B. Romera-Paredes, S. Nikolov, R. Jain, J. Adler, T. Back, S. Petersen, D. Reiman, E. Clancy, M. Zielinski, M. Steinegger, M. Pacholska, T. Berghammer, S. Bodenstein, D. Silver, O. Vinyals, A. W. Senior, K. Kavukcuoglu, P. Kohli, and D. Hassabis. 2021. Highly accurate protein structure prediction with AlphaFold. Nature 596(7873):583-589. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03819-2.
Kalantari, J. 2016. “Unsupervised In-Silico Modeling of Complex Biological Systems.” 2016 IEEE 1st International Workshops on Foundations and Applications of Self* Systems (FAS*W), 1-16 Septemeber 12-16, 2016.
Kapoor, S., B. Stroebl, Z. S. Siegel, N. Nadgir, and A. Narayanan. 2024. AI agents that matter. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2407.01502.
Kaufman, D. 2020. Introduction to the NHGRI Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) Program. ISCC In-Person Meeting.
Keeling, M. J., and K. T. D. Eames. 2005. Networks and epidemic models. Journal of The Royal Society Interface 2(4):295-307. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2005.0051.
Kesari, G. 2024. “The Future of Farming: AI Innovations That Are Transforming Agriculture.” Forbes, May 31.
Klimczak, S., and A. Śliwińska. 2024. Epigenetic regulation of inflammation in insulin resistance. Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology 154:185-192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semcdb.2022.09.004.
Kline, A., H. Wang, Y. Li, S. Dennis, M. Hutch, Z. Xu, F. Wang, F. Cheng, and Y. Luo. 2022. Multimodal machine learning in precision health: A scoping review. NPJ Digital Medicine 5(1):171. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-022-00712-8.
Krepinevich, A. F., and R. C. Martinage. 2008. Dissuasion Strategy. Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments. https://csbaonline.org/uploads/documents/2008.05.06-Dissuasion-Strategy.pdf.
Kupferschmidt, K. 2018. Crop-protecting insects could be turned into bioweapons, critics warn. Science Insider.
Lahiri, M., C. Tantipathananandh, R. Warungu, D. I. Rubenstein, and T. Y. Berger-Wolf. 2011. “Biometric animal databases from field photographs: identification of individual zebra in the wild.” Proceedings of the 1st ACM International Conference on Multimedia Retrieval, Trento, Italy. https://doi.org/10.1145/1991996.1992002.
Leech, G., S. Garfinkel, M. Yagudin, A. Briand, and A. Zhuravlev. 2024. Ten hard problems in artificial intelligence we must get right. arXiv preprint arXiv:2402.04464.
Lentzos, F. 2020. Dual-use biology: building trust and managing perceptions of intent. The Nonproliferation Review 27(4-6):517-523. https://doi.org/10.1080/10736700.2020.1853910.
Li, L., W. Y. Cheng, B. S. Glicksberg, O. Gottesman, R. Tamler, R. Chen, E. P. Bottinger, and J. T. Dudley. 2015. Identification of type 2 diabetes subgroups through topological analysis of patient similarity. Science Translational Medicine 7(311):311ra174. https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.aaa9364.
Li, N., A. Pan, A. Gopal, S. Yue, D. Berrios, A. Gatti, J. D. Li, A.-K. Dombrowski, S. Goel, L. Phan, G. Mukobi, N. Helm-Burger, R. R. Lababidi, L. Justen, A. B. Liu, M. Chen, I. Barrass, O. Zhang, X. Zhu, R. Tamirisa, B. Bharathi, A. Khoja, A. Herbert-Voss, C. B. Breuer, A. Zou, M. Mazeika, Z. Wang, P. Oswal, W. Liu, A. A. Hunt, J. Tienken-Harder, K. Y. Shih, K. Talley, J. Guan, R. Kaplan, I. Steneker, D. Campbell, B. Jokubaitis, A. Levinson, J. Wang, W. Qian, K. K. Karmakar, S. Basart, S. Fitz, M. Levine, P. Kumaraguru, U. K. Tupakula, V. Varadharajan, Y. Shoshitaishvili, J. Ba, K. M. Esvelt, A. Wang, and D. Hendrycks. 2024. The WMDP benchmark: Measuring and reducing malicious use with unlearning. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2403.03218.
Loução, I. 2024. “The Ethics of Artificial Intelligence: Exploring Moral Agency and Responsibility in AI Development.” Medium (blog). https://medium.com/@isabelloucao18/the-ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-exploring-moral-agency-and-responsibility-in-ai-development-240576801d46.
Marr, B. 2024. “Building Trust In AI: The Case for Transparency.” Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2024/05/03/building-trust-in-ai-the-case-for-transparency/.
Mazarr, M. J. 2018. Understanding Deterrence. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
Meta. 2023. “Overview of Meta AI safety policies prepared for the UK AI Safety Summit.” https://transparency.meta.com/en-gb/policies/ai-safety-policies-for-safety-summit#responsible-capability-scaling (accessed October 9, 2024).
Mittermaier, M., M. M. Raza, and J. C. Kvedar. 2023. “Bias in AI-based models for medical applications: challenges and mitigation strategies.” NPJ Digital Medicine 6(1):113. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-023-00858-z.
Mulero, A. 2024. Biotech Gets Creative to Avoid Bankruptcy in 2024. https://www.biospace.com/biotech-gets-creative-to-avoid-bankruptcy-in-2024 (accessed October 9, 2024).
Munsamy, G., T. Bohnuud, and P. Lorenz. 2024. “Improving Alphafold2 Performance with a Global Metagenomic & Biological Data Supply Chain.” bioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.03.06.583325.
NASEM (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine). 2020. Safeguarding the Bioeconomy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
---. 2022a. Communication and Information Transmission Using Biotechnology: Abridged Version. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
---. 2022b. Using Biology for Communication and Information Transmission: Proceedings of a Workshop–in Brief. Edited by Anne Johnson, Andrew Bremer, and Nancy Connell. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
---. 2023a. Biohybrid Materials and Technologies for Today and Tomorrow: Proceedings of a Workshop–in Brief. Edited by Anne Johnson, Trisha Tucholski, and Andrew Bremer. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
---. 2023b. Harnessing Innovative Biotechnologies for National Security in Material and Human Dimensions: Abridged Version. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
---. 2024. Artificial Intelligence and Automated Laboratories for Biotechnology: Leveraging Opportunities and Mitigating Risks: Proceedings of a Workshop—in Brief. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
National Institute of Food and Agriculture. n.d. “Artificial Intelligence.” U.S. Department of Agriculture. https://www.nifa.usda.gov/artificial-intelligence (accessed August 28, 2024).
National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2022. “NIST Bioeconomy Lexicon.” https://www.nist.gov/bioscience/nist-bioeconomy-lexicon#biotechnology (accessed August 22, 2024).
National Research Council. 2005. Catalyzing Inquiry at the Interface of Computing and Biology. Edited by John C. Wooley and Herbert S. Lin. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
---. 2011. Toward Precision Medicine: Building a Knowledge Network for Biomedical Research and a New Taxonomy of Disease. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
National Science and Technology Council. 2023. Vision, Needs, and Proposed Actions for Data for the Bioeconomy Initiative. National Science and Technology Council. https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/FINAL-Data-for-the-Bioeconomy-Initiative-Report.pdf.
Nguyen, E., M. Poli, M. G. Durrant, A. W. Thomas, B. Kang, J. Sullivan, M. Y. Ng, A. Lewis, A. Patel, A. Lou, S. Ermon, S. A. Baccus, T. Hernandez-Boussard, C. Ré, P. D. Hsu, and B. L. Hie. 2024. Sequence modeling and design from molecular to genome scale with Evo. bioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.02.27.582234.
Nissenbaum, H. 2017. Protecting privacy in an information age: The problem of privacy in public. In The Ethics of Information Technologies, edited by Keith W Miller and Mariarosaria Taddeo. London: Routledge.
Nobile, M. S., P. Cazzaniga, A. Tangherloni, and D. Besozzi. 2017. Graphics processing units in bioinformatics, computational biology and systems biology. Brief Bioinformatics 18(5):870-885. https://doi.org/10.1093/bib/bbw058.
Office of the Director of National Intelligence. 2024. “ODNI https://www.dni.gov/files/ODNI/documents/ODNI-Org-Chart-08-13-24.pdf (accessed October 9, 2024).
---. n.d. “Organization - Who We Are.” https://www.dni.gov/index.php/who-we-are/organizations (accessed October 9, 2024).
Office of the Federal Register. 2018. Public Law 115 - 232 - John S. McCain National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019. Edited by National Archives and Records Administration: U.S. Government Publishing Office.
---. 2022. Public Law 117 - 167 - An act making appropriations for Legislative Branch for the fiscal year ending September 30, 2022, and for other purposes. Edited by National Archives and Records Administration: U.S. Government Publishing Office.
Olawade, D. B., J. Teke, O. Fapohunda, K. Weerasinghe, S. O. Usman, A. O. Ige, and A. Clement David-Olawade. 2024. Leveraging artificial intelligence in vaccine development: A narrative review. Journal of Microbiological Methods 224:106998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mimet.2024.106998.
OpenAI. 2023. “Preparedness Framework (Beta).” https://cdn.openai.com/openai-preparedness-framework-beta.pdf (accessed October 9, 2024).
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. n.d. “Biodefense Policy Landscape Analysis.” https://www.pnnl.gov/projects/bplat (accessed October 9, 2024).
Pannu, J., D. Bloomfield, A. Zhu, R. MacKnight, G. Gomes, A. Cicero, and T. V. Inglesby. 2024. Prioritizing high-consequence biological capabilities in evaluations of artificial intelligence models. ArXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2407.13059.
Parums, D. V. 2023. Editorial: Infectious disease surveillance using artificial intelligence (AI) and its role in epidemic and pandemic preparedness.” Medical Science Monitor 29:e941209. https://doi.org/10.12659/msm.941209.
Pastore, V. P., M. Ciranni, S. Bianco, J. C. Fung, V. Murino, and F. Odone. 2023. Efficient unsupervised learning of biological images with compressed deep features. Image and Vision Computing 137:104764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imavis.2023.104764.
Petersen, B. 2018. Transgenic pigs to the rescue. Elife 7. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.37641.
Plevkova, J., M. Brozmanova, J. Harsanyiova, M. Sterusky, J. Honetschlager, and T. Buday. 2020. Various aspects of sex and gender bias in biomedical research. Physiological Research 69(Suppl 3):S367-s378. https://doi.org/10.33549/physiolres.934593.
Portela, R. M. C., C. Varsakelis, A. Richelle, N. Giannelos, J. Pence, S. Dessoy, and M. von Stosch. 2021. When is an in silico representation a digital twin? A biopharmaceutical industry approach to the digital twin concept. In Digital Twins: Tools and Concepts for Smart Biomanufacturing, edited by Christoph Herwig, Ralf Pörtner and Johannes Möller, 35-55. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Priani, E. 2021. Ramon Llull. In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta: Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
Qureshi, R., M. Irfan, T. M. Gondal, S. Khan, J. Wu, M. U. Hadi, J. Heymach, X. Le, H. Yan, and T. Alam. 2023. AI in drug discovery and its clinical relevance. Heliyon 9(7):e17575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17575.
Rajeeva, A. 2024. “AI Datasets Need to Get Smaller—and Better.” InfoWorld. https://www.infoworld.com/article/2335807/ai-datasets-need-to-get-smallerand-better.html.
Raza, M. M., K. P. Venkatesh, and J. C. Kvedar. 2022. Intelligent risk prediction in public health using wearable device data. NPJ Digital Medicine 5(1):153. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-022-00701-x.
Reich, N. G., L. C. Brooks, S. J. Fox, S. Kandula, C. J. McGowan, E. Moore, D. Osthus, E. L. Ray, A. Tushar, T. K. Yamana, M. Biggerstaff, M. A. Johansson, R. Rosenfeld, and J. Shaman. 2019. A collaborative multiyear, multimodel assessment of seasonal influenza forecasting in the United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116(8):3146-3154. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1812594116.
Rogers, E. M. 2003. Diffusion of Innovations, 5th Edition. Free Press.
Ryskamp, R., and D. Carder. 2017. The next generation of biofuels for the U.S. military. HDIAC Journal 4(1):5-9.
Sánchez-Lengeling, B., and A. Aspuru-Guzik. 2017. Learning more, with less. ACS Central Science 3(4):275-277. https://doi.org/10.1021/acscentsci.7b00153.
Sandbrink, J. 2023. Artificial intelligence and biological misuse: Differentiating risks of language models and biological design tools. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2306.13952.
Sanders, R. 2021. “Synthetic biology moves into the realm of the unnatural.” Berkeley News. https://news.berkeley.edu/2021/10/14/synthetic-biology-moves-into-the-realm-of-the-unnatural/.
Science Buddies. n.d. “Comparing the Engineering Design Process and the Scientific Method.” Science Buddies. https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/engineering-design-process/engineering-design-compare-scientific-method.
Shah-Neville, W. 2023. “Gold Rush Over: What Happens to Biotech Now That Venture Capital Is Out of Reach?” Labiotech. https://www.labiotech.eu/in-depth/venture-capital-biotech/ (accessed October 9, 2024).
Shakhova, E. S., T. A. Karataeva, N. M. Markina, T. Mitiouchkina, K. A. Palkina, M. M. Perfilov, M. G. Wood, T. T. Hoang, M. P. Hall, L. I. Fakhranurova, A. E. Alekberova, A. K. Malyshevskaia, D. A. Gorbachev, E. N. Bugaeva, L. K. Pletneva, V. V. Babenko, D. I. Boldyreva, A. Y. Gorokhovatsky, A. V. Balakireva, F. Gao, V. V. Choob, L. P. Encell, K. V. Wood, I. V. Yampolsky, K. S. Sarkisyan, and A. S. Mishin. 2024. An improved pathway for autonomous bioluminescence imaging in eukaryotes. Nature Methods 21(3):406-410. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41592-023-02152-y.
Sharma, A., T. Virmani, V. Pathak, A. Sharma, K. Pathak, G. Kumar, and D. Pathak. 2022. Artificial intelligence-based data-driven strategy to accelerate research, development, and clinical trials of COVID vaccine.” BioMed Research International 2022(1):7205241. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/7205241.
Shevlane, T. 2022. “Structured Access: An Emerging Paradigm for Safe AI Deployment.” https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197579329.013.39.
Simpkins, K., 2022, “Cities of the Future May Be Built with Algae-Grown Limestone.” https://www.colorado.edu/today/2022/06/23/cities-future-may-be-built-algae-grown-limestone.
Sitaraman, S. 2024. “Bacteria Put on an Invisibility Cloak to Cause Asymptomatic Infections.” TheScientist. https://www.the-scientist.com/bacteria-put-on-an-invisibility-cloak-to-cause-asymptomatic-infections-72072 (accessed October 15, 2024).
Solaiman, I. 2023. The Gradient of Generative AI Release: Methods and Considerations. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2302.04844.
Song, T., S. Cao, S. Tao, S. Liang, W. Du, and Y. Liang. 2017. A novel unsupervised algorithm for biological process-based analysis on cancer. Scientific Reports 7(1):4671. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-04961-6.
Stevens, R., V. Taylor, J. Nichols, A. B. Maccabe, K. Yelick, and D. Brown. 2020. AI for Science: Report on the Department of Energy (DOE) Town Halls on Artificial Intelligence (AI) for Science. Argonne National Lab (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States). https://doi.org/10.2172/1604756.
Suster, C. J. E., D. Pham, J. Kok, and V. Sintchenko. 2024. Emerging applications of artificial intelligence in pathogen genomics. Frontiers in Bacteriology 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbrio.2024.1326958.
Taraseva, K. 2023. BioMADE: Revitalizing U.S. biomanufacturing and fostering collaboration. SIMB News, 118-126.
Tessler, L. 2022. “Building Digitally Connected Labs with AWS.” AWS for Industries. Amazon. https://aws.amazon.com/blogs/industries/building-digitally-connected-labs-with-aws/ (accessed October 15, 2024).
The White House. 2022. “National Biodefense Strategy and Implementation Plan: For Countering Biological Threats, Enhancing Pandemic Preparedness, and Achieving Global Health Security.” https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/National-Biodefense-Strategy-and-Implementation-Plan-Final.pdf.
Trentin, C., Y. Ampatzidis, C. Lacerda, and L. Shiratsuchi. 2024. Tree crop yield estimation and prediction using remote sensing and machine learning: A systematic review. Smart Agricultural Technology 9:100556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atech.2024.100556.
Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering. 2023. U.S. Department of Defense Biomanufacturing Strategy. Edited by U.S. Department of Defense.
Urbina, F., F. Lentzos, C. Invernizzi, and S. Ekins. 2022. Dual use of artificial intelligence-powered drug discovery. Naturel Machine Intelligence 4(3):189-191. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42256-022-00465-9.
Urbina, J., A. Patil, K. Fujishima, I. G. Paulino-Lima, C. Saltikov, and L. J. Rothschild. 2019. A new approach to biomining: Bioengineering surfaces for metal recovery from aqueous solutions. Scientific Reports 9(1):16422. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52778-2.
U.S. AI Safety Institute. 2024. Managing Misuse Risk for Dual-Use Foundation Models. Edited by National Institute of Standards and Technology.
U.S. Congress, House of Representatives. 1991. Possible Uses and Misuses of Genetic Information. U.S. Congress, House of Representatives.
U.S. Department of Agriculture. n.d. “Biotechnology and Climate Change.” https://www.usda.gov/topics/biotechnology/climate-change (accessed August 21, 2024).
U.S. Department of Defense. 2020. DoD Data Strategy. https://media.defense.gov/2020/Oct/08/2002514180/-1/-1/0/DOD-DATA-STRATEGY.PDF.
---. 2022. “New Biotechnology Executive Order Will Advance DoD Biotechnology Initiatives for America’s Economic and National Security.” https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3157504/.
---. 2024. “DOD Launches Distributed Bioindustrial Manufacturing Program to Bolster Domestic Supply Chains.” https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3662704/dod-launches-distributed-bioindustrial-manufacturing-program-to-bolster-domesti/.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2021. Designing for Deep Decarbonization: Accelerating the U.S. Bioeconomy. U.S. Department of Energy. https://biosciences.lbl.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/21-BAO-3054-Designing-the-Bioeconomy-for-Deep-Decarbonization-Report_v5.pdf.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2023. Using Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in the Development of Drug and Biological Products. Edited by U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
U.S. Special Operations Command. 2019. JP 3-40 Joint Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction. https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/pubs/jp3_40.pdf.
“Use of Big Data Leads to Discovery in Diabetes.” 2022. Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. https://health.mountsinai.org/blog/use-of-big-data-leads-to-discovery-in-diabetes/ (accessed October 11, 2024).
Volkov, D. 2024. Badllama 3: removing safety finetuning from Llama 3 in minutes. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2407.01376.
Waldrop, M. DARPA and the Internet Revolution. https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20090114021333/http://www.darpa.gov/Docs/Internet_Development_200807180909255.pdf (accessed August 28, 2024).
Wang, Y., C. Yin, and P. Zhang. 2024. Multimodal risk prediction with physiological signals, medical images and clinical notes. Heliyon 10(5):e26772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e26772.
Webb, E. K., J. A. Etter, and J. A. Kwasa. 2022. Addressing racial and phenotypic bias in human neuroscience methods. Nature Neuroscience 25(4):410-414. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-022-01046-0.
Wilkinson, M. D., M. Dumontier, I. J. Aalbersberg, G. Appleton, M. Axton, A. Baak, N. Blomberg, J.-W. Boiten, L. B. da Silva Santos, P. E. Bourne, J. Bouwman, A. J. Brookes, T. Clark, M. Crosas, I. Dillo, O. Dumon, S. Edmunds, C. T. Evelo, R. Finkers, A. Gonzalez-Beltran, A. J. G. Gray, P. Groth, C. Goble, J. S. Grethe, J. Heringa, P. A. C. ’t Hoen, R. Hooft, T. Kuhn, R. Kok, J. Kok, S. J. Lusher, M. E. Martone, A. Mons, A. L. Packer, B. Persson, P. Rocca-Serra, M. Roos, R. van Schaik, S.-A. Sansone, E. Schultes, T. Sengstag, T. Slater, G. Strawn, M. A. Swertz, M. Thompson, J. van der Lei, E. van Mulligen, J. Velterop, A. Waagmeester, P. Wittenburg, K. Wolstencroft, J. Zhao, and B. Mons. 2016. The FAIR Guiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship. Scientific Data 3(1):160018. https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2016.18.
Wilson, E. O. 1998. Consilience and complexity. Complexity 3(5):17-21. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0526(199805/06)3:5<17::AID-CPLX3>3.0.CO;2-F.
Wilson, N. 2024. Artificial intelligence helps drive new frontiers in ecology. BioScience 74(5):306-311. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biae016.
Woodall, T. 2023. “Advances in Soft Robotics Usher in a New Era of Scientific Analysis.” Ohio State News. https://news.osu.edu/advances-in-soft-robotics-usher-in-a-new-era-of-scientific-analysis/.
Wu, G. 2024. “As Biotech Recovers, Venture Firms’ Preferences Appear to Shift.” https://www.biopharmadive.com/news/bio-2024-venture-funding-biotech-ipos/718119/ (accessed October 9, 2024).
Xue, J., S. Balamurugan, T. Li, J.-X. Cai, T.-T. Chen, X. Wang, W.-D. Yang, and H.-Y. Li. 2021. Biotechnological approaches to enhance biofuel producing potential of microalgae. Fuel 302:121169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.121169.
Zhou, Y., J. Cosentino, T. Yun, M. I. Biradar, J. Shreibati, D. Lai, T. H. Schwantes-An, R. Luben, Z. McCaw, J. Engmann, R. Providencia, A. F. Schmidt, P. Munroe, H. Yang, A. Carroll, A. P. Khawaja, C. Y. McLean, B. Behsaz, and F. Hormozdiari. 2024a. Utilizing multimodal AI to improve genetic analyses of cardiovascular traits. medRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.03.19.24304547.
Zhou, Y., H. Liu, T. Srivastava, H. Mei, and C. Tan. 2024b. Hypothesis generation with large language models. arXiv 2404.04326. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2404.04326.