CHAPTER 3

Agency Case Examples

Case Example Method

Selection Approach

The project team selected five case example agencies to provide the study with a wide range of options to investigate and explore differing programmatic, outreach, and enforcement responses. The following criteria were used to select agency locations:

• Geographic diversity across the United States, including both coastal and interior agencies.
• Varied transit infrastructure and modes ensuring a range of operating environments and fare systems and capturing differences between rail and bus modes.
• Varied climates, including locations with significant seasonal climate variations.
• Evidence of existing program responses, including outreach programs, station or operational changes, and enforcement programs.

Based on the criteria above, the team identified five case example agencies. The five agencies were chosen based on the available project timeline and budget. Panel approval of the case example agencies occurred in the Spring of 2024. Table 1 presents the five case example agencies in terms of system size, city population, ridership, and types of transit modes operated.

Interviews

In June and July of 2024, two team members visited each case example agency for 2 to 3 days. During the visit, project team members conducted semi-structured interviews at the office and in situ visits with frontline staff to gain insight into the partnership, outreach, and enforcement strategies employed to address drug use within the transit system.

A semi-structured interview is a popular approach for qualitative data collection that allows for flexibility in gathering vital information, in particular the option to adapt the ordering of questions and discussion items based on the changing roles of interviewed staff and additional topics of discussion that may not have been identified in the initial planning stages of the study (DiCicco-Bloom and Crabtree 2006). The interviews involved staff from the following areas of each agency:

• Customer experience;
• Facilities and maintenance;
• Law enforcement;
• Occupational health and safety;
• Operations, including transit control, on-street supervisors, and Ambassadors;
• Outreach partnerships; and
• Research and analytics.

Table 1. Five case example agencies.

Semi-structured interviews were held during business hours, while in-field visits with operations staff, outreach partnership staff, and law enforcement occurred typically in the early morning and late evening hours. Through the staff interviews and ridealongs with frontline staff, the project team interacted and met with 120 individuals spanning transit agency staff, outreach partners, and police officers across the five participating transit agencies.

Data Collection

Along with conducting interviews and site visits, a data request was submitted to the case example agencies to gather additional quantitative information to supplement the interview findings. This was also done as part of an assessment of the varieties and types of data collected by transit agencies about drug use. The data request evolved through agency interviews and knowledge of what data exist. While data requests were customized for each agency based on their available data, the request generally included the following:

• Counts of naloxone deployments;
• Counts of internal and customer-facing reports of incidents of drug use on transit, including staff incidents;
• Key performance indicators related to drug use collected by the transit agencies and outreach partners;
• Customer survey data; and
• Police and other enforcement call counts.

Where possible, data for the past 3 years (2021–2024) were requested.

The following sections present the interview, data request, and field visit findings from the five case example agencies. Each case example consists of three sections: (1) a brief explanation of why the agency was selected from a program perspective; (2) an outline of agency’s data

collection programs, including what specific data each agency collects; and (3) an overview of initiatives being taken by each agency to respond to drug use on transit. The interview questions are provided in Appendix A of this synthesis.

Chicago, Illinois

Context

The Chicago Transit Authority (CTA) serves the City of Chicago and many of its adjacent suburban municipalities with a large, grid-based bus system and an extensive rapid transit heavy rail system. As of 2023, the agency had a service area of 283 square miles and served a population of 3,224,925. That same year, 279,146,501 unlinked trips were made on CTA’s system (FTA 2024). CTA’s staff roles and responsibilities are summarized in Table 2.

CTA is unique in that its Red and Blue lines provide 24-hour service, which has increasingly resulted in unhoused individuals using these lines for shelter and drug use. Chicago’s climate varies with temperatures ranging from an average low of 21°F in the winter to an average high of 80°F in the summer. Given the colder temperatures that Chicago experiences in the winter, CTA facilities act as a last-resort shelter for the unhoused. Observation data from January 2020 reported that 43% of unhoused individuals surveyed had planned to shelter in CTA facilities on a cold night (Liederman 2024).

In partnership with the Chicago Department of Public Health, CTA has installed a vending machine that dispenses harm reduction items such as fentanyl and xylazine test kits and Narcan at the 95th/Dan Ryan Red Line station. Through 2023, CTA provided $2 million in funding to the Chicago Department of Family and Support Services (DFSS) for additional outreach and support services for riders who are unsheltered, as well as those grappling with mental health and drug use with a particular focus on the Red and Blue lines. Additionally, in 2022, CTA increased the deployment of both Chicago Police Department (CPD) resources and contracted security to support transit safety programs across the transit system.

Data Collection Programs

Data collection on incidents involving drug use on the CTA’s system is highly decentralized. Information is gathered by the CTA itself, as well as various external agencies and organizations,

Table 2. CTA staff roles and responsibilities.

Table 3. CTA data collection programs.

including the CPD, the Chicago DFSS, and the Chicago Office of Emergency Management and Communications (OEMC). Table 3 summarizes CTA’s data collection programs.

Agency Programs

Occupational Health and Safety (OH&S)

Various occupational health and safety risks surrounding drug use have led CTA to develop policies designed to protect CTA staff. Janitors and rail car servicers are given an 8-hour blood-borne pathogen training response program, along with optional preventive vaccinations, because they are at risk of exposure to bodily fluids when cleaning transit vehicles and stations. Needle disposal training is also provided for cleaning staff. Secondhand exposure to drugs by staff is handled internally through their claims department, and an employee assistance program that offers counseling is provided if needed.

Station and Operations

Infrastructure Changes.

CTA has made numerous CPTED improvements to improve perceptions of safety for their customers and staff. Many transit stations with older infrastructure may have poor lighting, limitations in sightlines, and blind spots. New LED lighting is being installed at stations along with cameras positioned at identified blind spots (see Figure 3). Sharps containers designed for needle disposal have been installed on the platforms at most of the end-of-line rail terminals.

Staff Responsibilities.

CTA staff are responsible for addressing drug use so as to prioritize employee safety. When drug use is observed on platforms or transit vehicles, operators issue a non-confrontational announcement reminding passengers that smoking any substance is prohibited. Operators can notify the Operations Control Center and, using their professional judgment, request a response from CPD. CTA staff do not carry naloxone. However, the union representing CTA workers has expressed a desire to be involved in future discussions if policies change regarding the access and deployment of naloxone within the transit system.

Source: David Cooper

Outreach

Outreach Providers.

CTA has an intergovernmental agreement with Chicago DFSS to provide additional outreach and support services on trains and at rail stations across the CTA network (see Figure 4). This decision to involve DFSS in selecting the optimal contractors for outreach across CTA has allowed for DFSS expertise to guide this process. Services offered to unhoused individuals include distributing harm reduction materials (including naloxone and fentanyl test kits), referrals for temporary and permanent housing, and mental health and addiction support. Two contracted outreach services are deployed on the CTA’s Red and Blue lines. The contractor for the Red Line focuses on mental health, while the Blue Line contractor provides support related to drug use, mental health, and housing. Information on vulnerable individuals is collected through interactions with outreach workers and recorded in the Enrollment Coordinated Entry System, a database that documents outreach efforts and referrals conducted on the transit system.

With respect to naloxone distribution, CPD officers can carry naloxone and many do. The presence of outreach workers can be vital for someone experiencing an overdose on transit. Outreach workers are trained in how to address an opioid overdose and can immediately assist someone who appears to be overdosing while waiting for emergency medical help to arrive.

Harm Reduction Vending Machines.

CDPH launched a pilot program to operate five Public Health Vending Machines in 2023 (see Figure 5). These machines offer harm reduction supplies, including Narcan, at no cost, to help prevent overdoses in the city and support the health and well-being of people in Chicago. One of these vending machines is at the 95th/Dan Ryan Red Line station—just outside the station fare gates (or paid fare zone)—and is accessible 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Each vending machine contains Narcan, fentanyl and xylazine test kits, general and menstrual hygiene kits, and socks and underwear. Although all items are free,

individuals require a unique PIN code to access these supplies (see Figure 6). However, Narcan can be immediately accessed by entering “1234” into the machine.

Following the pilot project, expanding these vending machines to more stations across the CTA network is a priority. CTA’s Chief Equity Officer, stated that the “CTA is aggressively looking to expand on the pilot we started with the Chicago Department of Public Health, we know there are hot spots on Blue, Green and Pink lines” (Liederman 2024). As of 2022, naloxone is available in all Chicago city libraries through the Public Health Department (Chicago Department of Public Health 2022) and expanding the vending machines offers the CTA a chance to increase access across its network.

In December 2023, the West Side Heroin Opioid Task Force (WSHOTF), a Chicago-based coalition of public, private, and nonprofit organizations dedicated to reducing opioid overdoses in the city’s West Side communities (Prevention Partnership 2022), proposed a plan to the CTA to expand naloxone dispensing devices (vending machines) to more stations across the CTA network. Alongside WSHOTF, support for the program would also come from CDPH, the Chicago Recovery Alliance, Cook County Health, and the Cook County Department of Public Health to purchase and maintain the vending machines, provide naloxone supplies, offer harm reduction education, and perform data analysis (Chicago Department of Public Health 2023). This proposal aims to decrease the number of opioid overdoses on the CTA and to educate transit customers on naloxone and its administration.

Enforcement

CPD provides a transit-specific detail by contract to respond to 911 (see Figure 7). CPD’s primary law enforcement response is provided by the Public Transportation Section Unit. The unit is staffed by full-time officers and supervisors, who work on the CTA system daily. Off-duty personnel are a supplement to regular patrols. CTA also employs contracted unarmed security

Source: David Cooper

Source: CTA

officers to enhance visibility across the system. These officers are not authorized to intervene or detain individuals and must rely on the CPD in emergency situations. Recently, K-9 security units have been deployed across the system to help address fare evasion, conduct patrols, report suspicious activity, and help reinforce the agency’s code-of-conduct policy.

Customer Engagement

Unlike other transit agencies participating in this study, CTA does not have a mobile application for customers to report emergencies while on transit. Customers can contact CTA through various channels including a web-based virtual agent chat box to answer questions and allow customers to report non-emergency travel issues. The Customer Engagement Tool consistently monitors complaints in real time. For example, a customer wishing to report smoking on a train can follow the automated prompts to share the 4-digit vehicle number on which the incident was observed or is happening in real time. In an emergency situation, customers are advised to either let the nearest employee know and/or to call 911, which are routed through the City’s Office of Emergency Management and Communications (OEMC). Additionally, every rail car has passenger intercoms for use in emergencies.

Key Takeaways

• CTA has an intergovernmental agreement with the Chicago DFSS, which uses its expertise to assist CTA in selecting external outreach providers.
• Public Health Vending Machines, which contain naloxone, among other items, are being piloted at one CTA station. In a partnership with CDPH, CTA plans to install more across the transit system.
• Law enforcement is primarily undertaken by CPD. Although contracted security officers are also present, their powers are limited compared with CPD officers.

Denver, Colorado

Context

Denver’s Regional Transportation District (RTD) operates an extensive network of light rail, commuter rail, and bus services across eight counties in the Denver-Aurora combined statistical area. As of 2023, RTD had a service area of 2,342 square miles and a population of 3,098,079.

Table 4. Denver RTD staff roles and responsibilities.

That year, RTD had 64,532,821 unlinked passenger trips on its system (FTA 2024). The roles and responsibilities of Denver RTD staff are summarized in Table 4.

In response to perceptions of transit safety concerns, Denver RTD has developed a series of program responses at identified high-impact areas of the transit system such as Denver Union Station. Program responses have included several CPTED enhancements and an increase in safety and security personnel. Denver has a varied climate with temperatures ranging from an average low of 16 degrees Fahrenheit in winter to an average high of 88 degrees Fahrenheit in summer.

Data Collection Programs

Customers can report drug use and security incidents several ways, including by phone and submitting reports through the RTD Transit Watch App. Once a safety complaint is lodged via the app, an alert goes out to the transit police so they can respond sufficiently to the incident. The app is reported to have around 45,000 active users, and RTD is encouraging its ridership to download the app to make reporting more streamlined. If an incident is reported via social media, such as through X/Twitter, RTD requests that the reporter of the incident reports it through the app instead. This also applies to contractors and facilities staff who witness substance use.

RTD has developed a strategy to keep track of incidents regarding drug use and general security concerns, along with an effort to make data more accessible to the general public. An incident report is created following a call from a security officer or transit police, with this data kept internally. RTD does not currently publish incident data in their board reports or share this data with the public. However, there are plans to make the system more transparent by creating an accessible incident database and dashboards on RTD’s website. Drug use incidents are internally reported and tracked through RTD’s Safety Management System. Incidents around drug use and naloxone deployment are also reported to external sources, including a software platform called LexisNexis. RTD’s ability to receive drug use data from external sources is limited because such sources are not obliged to share data with RTD. However, Douglas County informs RTD of the local situation regarding drug use in the proximity of transit property. Table 5 summarizes Denver RTD’s data collection programs.

Table 5. Denver RTD data collection programs.

Agency Programs

Occupational Health and Safety

RTD has undertaken numerous occupational health & safety (OH&S) procedures to protect its staff in response to drug use on its system. Personal protective equipment (PPE), such as high-quality (N95) masks and protective gloves, are given to cleaning staff when handling drug paraphernalia to enhance employee safety. RTD also has a continuous monitoring policy that allows them to track incidents and assess safety risks to improve response strategies. Additionally, RTD has held joint fentanyl safety meetings with transit police.

Bus and train operators are told not to engage if an incident occurs, because such engagement presents a major liability issue. Operators are instructed to call the control center or flag a transit security officer or a transit police officer to intervene. This is part of RTD’s Employee Safety Reporting strategy that encourages employees to report drug use and safety concerns.

RTD and the Amalgamated Transit Union (ATU) Local 1001 entered into an agreement on January 6, 2023, pertaining to leave for incidental exposure to illicit drugs. This agreement was made to address safety concerns for represented employees. The agreement states that employees will report exposure regardless of whether they feel impaired. An employee who feels impaired will be relieved from duty, complete on-the-job injury reporting paperwork, and be given the opportunity to have a medical examination by an RTD-designated worker’s compensation medical provider at the agency’s expense.

RTD has implemented proactive measures to respond to possible airborne drug exposure. If smoke from suspected drug use is detected on buses, the procedure is to air the bus for 10 minutes. The procedure for trains is to wait to air the vehicle out at the end of the line if possible, for no longer than 5 minutes. If a transit operator reports they feel unwell due to exposure, they can be relieved from duty and receive 2 days off. An incident report will also be drafted. A briefing note detailing how to respond to exposure is distributed to the affected employee, but this has caused a perception problem among operators that RTD is not taking exposure seriously. RTD’s railcars are designed to have a completely enclosed compartment for their operators, and testing has been conducted to ensure that smoke from suspected drug use cannot get into the compartment. As indicated by RTD, bus operators face a higher risk of exposure because they are protected only by a glass barrier, which allows airflow from the rest of the bus to pass through easily—unlike the fully enclosed operator compartments found in light rail vehicles.

Naloxone Deployment

As of October 2024, RTD Transit Police has 80 officers certified for Peace Officer and Standards Training (POST). These POST-certified officers are supported by an additional 291 contracted

security guards. Naloxone is carried by all POST-certified officers and contracted security supervisors. Additionally, all contracted security guards have immediate access to naloxone in their vehicles. Naloxone is also stored and available at all major transit hubs across RTD’s service area. In 2023, naloxone was successfully administered to 103 individuals experiencing an overdose at stations, in buses and trains, and in transit facilities. Transit Police has ordered an additional 1,000 units of naloxone to support the department’s near-term efforts, which is almost twice the volume requested by the department in 2023.

Station and Operations

Infrastructure Changes.

RTD has also improved stations and facilities so as to deter open drug use in their system. In 2020, station-hardening and CPTED improvements were implemented at Union Station following an increased concentration of open drug use and social disorder. Open drug use had previously resulted in RTD temporarily closing the station as a mitigation measure, along with the underground bus terminal. This included installing directional signage, restricting access to bathrooms, and replacing glass with reinforced Lexan panels. These measures are designed to “harden” the system by deterring loitering. RTD has acknowledged that they possess limited options to alter the design of the trains to deter drug use. However, cleaning improvements mentioned earlier have been used to mitigate the effects of drug paraphernalia being left on transit vehicles. System-hardening measures have also been enacted to deter the presence of encampments, including installing fencing and cutting down trees.

Open Door Elevator Pilot.

Open drug use has also become an issue in the system’s elevators, which has resulted in doors and glass becoming damaged. In response, in March 2024, RTD launched a 90-day pilot program at three light rail stations. This pilot program entailed (1) programming elevator doors to remain open to deter drug use and increase ventilation and (2) installing enhanced cameras that can be monitored remotely from law enforcement vehicles. Modifying the programming of the elevators required 3 hours of work by a technician and cost RTD approximately $700. RTD used its internal and external communications channels to inform its staff and customers about the pilot (RTD Denver 2024). Individuals who damaged elevators were caught by law enforcement; however, no increase in elevator usage by riders was recorded. RTD also has a live video and audio feed into all the elevators on the transit system. Both Transit Control and RTD Police can access these feeds for monitoring and issue resolution. In July 2024, following the success of the initial pilot, RTD announced the expansion of the open elevator door program to include three additional light rail stations, which saw a significant reduction in security-related incidents—in particular, calls for service. The success of the program inspired LA Metro to begin a similar pilot for elevators in its system (Broghammer 2024).

Outreach

RTD has implemented an outreach program and hopes to expand this. Outreach is conducted by one contracted outreach specialist, a counselor who is trained in administering naloxone and first aid. The outreach specialist’s day follows the general outreach structure seen in other transit agencies of answering calls, identifying persons in need, offering resources, and conducting follow-ups. A high degree of outreach is conducted at homeless encampments. One of the major components of the program is enrolling unhoused individuals into the Homeless Management Information System (HMIS), which can track the needs of unhoused individuals and connect them with housing, if available. For an unhoused person to remain in the system, they need to check in every 30 days. As part of the program, outreach specialists also provide supplies known as “blessing bags,” which contain liquids, socks, and naloxone. The outreach specialist generally works alone but is occasionally accompanied by police officers. The outreach specialist works weekdays between 9:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m. RTD hopes to hire additional outreach specialists to expand the program’s effect across the agency’s vast eight-county service area.

Enforcement

RTD has its own police force, known as the Transit Police, who patrol the system 24/7 and respond to security concerns, including calls related to drug use (see Figure 8). Transit Police are empowered to enforce RTD’s Code of Conduct, which prohibits drug use and trespassing. Transit Police have limited enforcement powers—they cannot arrest for certain offenses, and arrest processing protocols vary by county, a challenge as indicated by frontline officers. Transit Police can arrest individuals for trespassing if the individuals have been suspended for violating the Code of Conduct. Suspensions typically last between 30 to 90 days but can be permanent.

In response to increased demands from RTD operators for a stronger police presence, particularly at Union Station—a hotspot for drug use—RTD has increased recruitment and deployment of transit police officers. Union Station now has a constant transit police presence. The current response to drug use incidents involves dispatching transit police officers and, if necessary, an on-street supervisor to support operators. Response times have improved with the increased officer deployment, although RTD acknowledges the need for further improvement. Additionally, RTD has hired contracted security officers to patrol the system. These security officers have limited enforcement powers (in that they cannot make arrests), are only armed with pepper spray, and are paid less than other RTD staff.

Customer Engagement

In May 2024, a 6-month pilot program known as the Impact Team was launched. The program aims to improve customer service and perceptions of safety by having existing RTD staff act as transit Ambassadors. Ambassadors work in pairs, are provided with orange vests to heighten their visibility, and are tasked with helping customers navigate the system and purchase fares, along with providing increased staff visibility for the system. RTD’s community engagement strategy involves a customer satisfaction survey for commuters. The survey has questions about perceptions of safety.

Source: David Cooper

Key Takeaways

• A pilot program to keep elevator doors open when not in use so as to deter drug use was implemented at a very low one-time cost to the agency. The program’s success has inspired a similar pilot at LA Metro.
• One outreach specialist patrols the transit system, although RTD hopes to expand the outreach program to better cover the agency’s vast eight-county service area.
• Denver Union Station receives constant transit police presence, given that the station has been a hotspot for illicit drug use.

Los Angeles, California

Context

Los Angeles Metro (Metro), the largest agency in this report, operates an extensive network of heavy rail, light rail, conventional bus, and BRT services across an area of 4,629 square miles and a population of 10,347,626 as of 2023. In that year, Metro’s system served 290,769,034 unlinked passenger trips, the highest of all five agencies featured in this report (FTA 2024). Table 6 summarizes the roles and responsibilities of LA Metro staff.

Table 6. LA Metro staff roles and responsibilities.

Metro has developed and deployed several responses to address transit safety and security. These initiatives include security teams deployed across the system, enhancements to the built environment to create safer spaces, and deployment of social services to support the community (LA Metro n.d.). In addition, Metro’s 2019 “Understanding How Women Travel” Report (LA Metro 2019), demonstrated leadership and commitment to making public transit safer for women and girls, and this synthesis explores how initiatives stemming from this work address safety and drug use more specifically.

Data Collection Programs

Customers and employees alike can report instances of drug use through Metro’s Transit Watch app (developed in-house) by either text message or phone call. Reports received through the app are monitored by Metro Security 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Metro’s “if you see something, report it” campaign encourages users to report an incident anonymously so staff can respond in real time. With respect to reporting an observed incident related to drug use, there is a suggested “Smoking/Alcohol/Drugs” category with opportunity for information on time and location to be recorded in the report. Users can also contact emergency services directly through the app.

Metro frequently receives requests to access data related to drug use. Data exists on an internal agency dashboard and is also published in monthly board reports. The agency is developing a public-facing data portal, which will allow customers to access data about drug use. Metro tracks drug use on its system via customer reporting through the Transit Watch app or other customer communication channels and the deployment of naloxone by any of its security teams, outreach partners, and Ambassadors. Additionally, information on drug-related arrests is monitored by the agency’s security department. Table 7 summarizes LA Metro’s data collection programs.

Agency Programs

Occupational Health and Safety

Substance Use Task Force.

LA Metro created a task force for addressing drug use issues relating to facilities, maintenance, law enforcement, and operations. The task force was originally created in response to individuals trespassing on critical and supporting infrastructure (e.g., ventilation shafts and ancillary spaces). To address the issue of individuals using these ancillary spaces for shelter and drug use, a multi-pronged approach was implemented over several years. Regular inspections were introduced to remove trespassers from restricted areas. Safety protocols were established for maintenance employees, including pairing them with law enforcement, training them in safe cleaning practices, hiring an independent industrial hygienist to test for illicit drugs, and extensively testing cleaning materials for effectiveness in removing fentanyl traces.

To prevent trespassing and drug use in these spaces, station-hardening measures were implemented (see Figure 9). Although doors to restricted areas could not be locked due to emergency access requirements, alarms were installed, prompting law enforcement to respond when triggered. These measures conveyed the message that these restricted spaces would no longer be tolerated as shelters. Metro’s multifaceted approach has effectively reduced trespassing and drug use in these areas.

Standard Operating Procedures.

To protect employees who are likely to handle hazardous materials at Metro facilities and vehicles, Metro has a standard operating procedure (SOP) which provides guidelines when handling dangerous materials, including human waste and needles/sharp objects. When handling human waste, employees are required to wear PPE (e.g., safety glasses, face shields, coveralls, gloves, and protective footwear) and may voluntarily use an N-95

Table 7. LA Metro data collection programs.

Source: David Cooper

filtering facepiece respirator. When handling hazardous materials, employees are required to wear PPE (e.g., safety glasses and gloves). If illicit drugs are discovered on a vehicle, employees are required to contact the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) (Collins Kalu 2015). The SOP for handling hazardous materials was revised in 2023 with cleaning protocols for surfaces contaminated with fentanyl and methamphetamine. Extensive testing was conducted to test the efficacy of different cleaning solutions and procedures, resulting in a protocol that ensures no detectable amounts of substances remain after cleaning. Employees who may come in contact with needles or other potentially infectious materials are offered preventive vaccines.

Station and Operations

Staff Responsibilities and Operations.

Both agency and contracted staff play crucial roles in addressing drug use on Metro’s extensive system. According to Metro’s SOPs, if a rail operator witnesses drug use on a train, they must contact the Security Operations Center (SOC) or the Rail Operations Control (ROC) center, which will then dispatch law enforcement or security personnel. Although frontline Metro staff, including operators, do not carry naloxone, Ambassadors are equipped with naloxone.

Operators vary in their approaches: some prefer a “hands-off method,” simply reporting the incident, while others take a more “hands-on” approach by engaging with the individual involved in drug use. Contracted maintenance staff (e.g., elevator maintenance personnel) can report drug use to the SOC or a Metro staff member, but they do not intervene or track incidents. Contractors may also request additional support for tasks like clearing encampments, and requests for security assistance during elevator and escalator maintenance are common. If major safety concerns are present at a station scheduled for cleaning or maintenance, staff will skip that station and move on to the next. Amid a rising number of assaults on operators, the staff’s primary request is for increased security and law enforcement presence.

Cleaning and Maintenance.

Elevators are of particular concern because they provide secluded spaces in which to engage in drug use. Operations staff noted damage to elevators and broken glass in particular. This situation is illustrated by the increased operational spending on glass replacement during and following the COVID-19 pandemic. Before the pandemic, monthly glass replacement costs across the system, for both elevator and map case replacement, averaged

around $16,000, with this number increasing substantially to approximately $250,000 a month. Additionally, the need for removal of garbage and discarded needles or sharps was another concern. The removal of this waste on the tracks is complicated by the need to dispose of needles separately from garbage disposal. Figure 10 illustrates staff cleaning an LRT station at night.

Infrastructure Changes.

Metro is piloting numerous infrastructure improvements at several rail stations, guided by the principle of proactively preventing incidents. Staff note that the Westlake/MacArthur Park station is particularly challenging, with high levels of crime, drug use, loitering, and unauthorized activities occurring, including an unsanctioned market operating in the station’s plaza and surrounding areas. In response, in early 2023, Metro implemented a range of staff and infrastructure changes, including (1) deploying increased numbers of Ambassadors, security staff, and custodians; (2) modifying the deployment schedules of law enforcement officers to improve visible presence of staff across the transit system; (3) improving station lighting; (4) installing additional closed-circuit cameras; (5) increasing air flow through the ventilation system to remove odors and fumes; (6) closing of an underutilized station entrance; (7) fencing off underutilized areas in the plaza that have poor sight lines; (8) playing classical music in the station to minimize loitering; and (9) implementing a new faregate pilot intervention to consolidate station entry/exits to increase fare compliance, improve passenger flow, and maximize the effectiveness of uniformed staffing. According to Metro, occurrences of graffiti, vandalism, loitering, and garbage/clean-up incidents have been reduced by over 50% (LA Metro 2023c). Figures 11 and 12 provide illustrations.

The following infrastructure changes were not exclusive to Westlake/MacArthur Park station and have been implemented at other stations:

• Playing classical music (Civic Center, Pershing Square);
• Ensuring elevator doors remain open (exclusive to newer elevators due to technical limitations on older models);

Source: David Cooper

Source: LA Metro

• Installing an ambient sound device (APU/Citrus College station);
• Pilot program requiring customers to tap their cards to exit (North Hollywood station) (see Figure 13);
• Improving lighting (new fixtures and upgrades to LED);
• Reinforcing secured doors, fences, and other potential opportunities for trespassing;
• Restricting access to ancillary spaces;
• Trimming of vegetation and trees for increased visibility;
• Installing polycarbonate cover over glass in elevators for added protection against vandalism; and
• Ensuring all future rapid transit stations are equipped with fare gates.

In October 2023, Metro launched a pilot project to provide public restrooms at three stations, including at Westlake/MacArthur Park station (see Figure 14). These portable restrooms, developed in partnership with the start-up company, Throne, are self-cleaning, solar-powered, and

Source: LA Metro

Source: LA Metro

do not require connections to water, sewer, or electricity (Hymon 2023). Access to these restrooms requires a cell phone, allowing users to request a free QR code. The system can restrict future access for users who continuously exceed the 10-minute time limit or cause damage. The restrooms are typically available from 6:00 a.m. to 9:00 p.m., 7 days a week. This pilot program addresses the long-standing challenge of providing restroom access on public transit by using technology to monitor cleaning, maintenance needs, and consumable replacements. Additionally, the cellphone-based access aims to promote user accountability, ensuring the restrooms remain in good condition.

Source: LA Metro

Outreach

Outreach Partners.

Metro recognizes that the presence of individuals seeking shelter on transit, as well as those experiencing mental illness and drug use, reflects broader social challenges in Los Angeles and California. In 2017, Metro’s Board of Directors approved funding for multidisciplinary homeless outreach teams to deliver resources to individuals experiencing homelessness on the transit system. Delivered through partnerships with county, city, and regional agencies, the comprehensive outreach program was established as part of Metro’s multilayer plan to improve safety. This program includes partnerships with homeless outreach partners and the LA County Department of Health Services. Through these partnerships, several outreach teams are deployed across the transit system (see Figure 15). In addition, Metro staff have received in-house training to handle vulnerable populations experiencing homelessness, mental illness, and addiction effectively and compassionately.

The outreach team personnel have varied professional and lived experience with mental illness, addiction, or homelessness. These multidisciplinary teams consist of case managers, a Peer Support Specialist (someone with lived experience), a drug use specialist, a mental health specialist, and nurses. Teams are deployed 24 hours a day on weekdays with reduced hours on weekends—although 24-hour-coverage for weekends is planned.

Outreach workers support vulnerable populations within Metro’s transit environment in various ways, including distributing harm reduction supplies, food and water, blankets, and hygiene products. Outreach workers can also connect individuals with local public health initiatives, such as medical clinics or free showers, that are near to transit or serving Metro stations. For example, the Los Angeles County Department of Health Services operates a full-service mobile medical clinic that frequently stops at transit stations such as Westlake/MacArthur Park station. Outreach workers can help connect individuals to this unit to receive primary care or even see drug use counselors and social workers. Providing resources and services for temporary or permanent housing, as well as drug use or mental health treatment, are top priorities for outreach workers (see Figure 16). However, these goals can be challenging to achieve due to the delicate balance between an individual’s willingness to accept support and the immediate availability of that support. One approach used by Metro’s contracted homeless outreach agency, People Assisting the Homeless (PATH), involves starting their shifts at 3:00 a.m. to engage with unhoused individuals entering the Metro system as it opens at 4:00 a.m. Similarly, outreach workers are positioned at end-of-line stations to engage with individuals who disembark the last train before service ends.

Source: LA Metro

Source: LA Metro

In both scenarios, the outreach workers aim to link individuals with temporary shelter or other available resources.

To support outreach workers in connecting unhoused individuals with temporary shelter, Metro currently funds 45 shelter beds through its contract with the LA County Department of Health Services. An additional 25 beds are reserved for Metro’s outreach teams through a partnership with LA County Homeless Initiative and Los Angeles Homeless Services Authority (LAHSA). Because outreach workers are deployed across the Metro network 24-hours a day between Monday and Friday, funding these beds ensures after-hours access—an essential response to the issue that most homeless services in Los Angeles typically operate weekdays during standard business hours. Outreach workers have access to a real-time bed tracker to determine shelter availability efficiently. Furthermore, these dedicated shelters are low-barrier and provide many services, including, but not limited to, case management, housing navigation, drug use, and mental health care. Most homeless outreach providers that Metro partners with maintain a 60-day throughput goal of connecting clients to more permanent housing, which provides outreach teams with ongoing bed availability. Metro staff indicated that providing funding for shelter beds comes at a cost and amplifies the discussion around scope creep as the transit agency shifts from its core mandate of providing transit services to funding services like shelter beds.

Metro’s outreach workers receive extensive training. While all community-based organizations involved in Metro’s outreach efforts provide their own employee training, including de-escalation training, mental health support, and first aid (including naloxone administration), all outreach workers receive rail safety training in addition to Metro 101 training.

Outreach workers are trained to use an app to collect certain information (e.g., number of engagements, enrollments, and connections to permanent and interim housing services), which is published on the agency’s internal data dashboard. Between July 2022 and June 2024, outreach teams had engaged with a total of 7,309 individuals and had connected approximately 1,900 of them to housing, a significant increase over the originally mandated goal of 966 individuals. Most individuals are placed into interim housing, with 357 receiving permanent housing placements (see Figure 17).

Another form of outreach was developed for the opening of Metro’s K Line in 2022. The Street Team and Community Intervention Specialists program was implemented as another effort to reimagine public safety by increasing the presence of uniformed personnel on the system. This program engages local community-based organizations as an unarmed safety presence to foster

a safe environment, while providing training on customer experience, de-escalation, bystander intervention, and naloxone administration.

Ambassador Program.

Metro launched its ambassador program in September 2022, as part of the agency’s efforts to reduce reliance on law enforcement when interacting with vulnerable individuals (see Figure 18). Ambassadors are trained to assist customers and contribute to a more pleasant transit experience, although they also play a critical role in reporting safety incidents on the system. The program was informed by recommendations from Metro’s 2019 Understanding How Women Travel report (LA Metro 2019), aiming to assist riders in navigating the system, paying fares, and reporting issues. Metro’s initiative was also influenced by the Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) Transit Ambassador program, which launched in 2020 (LA Metro 2022). Karen Parks, Metro’s senior director of special projects who oversees the initiative, said: “Our key focus is the customer experience—enhancing the journey. Ambassadors are our additional eyes and ears. We support our riders and safety. We connect riders to resources. And we report incidents on our system” (Anguiano 2024).

Ambassadors are contracted employees and often travel in teams of two, with a total of 225 Ambassadors patrolling Metro’s system from 6:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m. on weekdays, and from 8:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m. on weekends. Ambassadors undergo an extensive training program consisting of rail and bus operations overview, performing CPR, using Metro’s Transit Watch app, and disability awareness. Similarly, Ambassadors are trained to document all engagements and incidents (e.g., number of referrals to the mobile clinic, encampments observed, and times naloxone is administered) and report such data weekly. Training totals 80 hours spanning 10 days.

In early 2023, Ambassadors began to carry naloxone and received training on how to administer it safely to a rider in need. Equipping Ambassadors with naloxone has been a key component of Metro’s safety and security strategy. As one of many teams supporting transit safety, they work closely with other public safety units and partners across the system. Interviews with staff

Source: David Cooper

suggested that Ambassador deployment of naloxone is approximately three times higher than police officers. Since the program began, Ambassadors have assisted over 1,000,000 customers and have saved 226 lives, with 95% of those cases involving the administration of naloxone.

Enforcement

Legal Framework.

Enforcement regarding drug use is regulated by both Metro’s Code of Conduct and the Penal Code of California. Fare enforcement and the Code of Conduct are not enforced by the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) de jure, although both the Code of Conduct and the Penal Code are similar. The Code of Conduct imposes a $75.00 administrative fine on individuals engaging in any acts prohibited in Metro facilities and vehicles, including smoking or vaping, fare evasion, drinking alcohol, possessing an illegal drug or substance, being under the influence of a drug or controlled substance, and loitering. Smoking or vaping is also not allowed within 20 feet of any Metro facility entrance, exit, or operable window. Violation of the Code of Conduct can result in an administrative citation, with the above-mentioned violations carrying a $75.00 fine (LA Metro 2017). Failure to pay citations by the due date or receiving at least three citations for the same violation are examples of grounds for exclusion from Metro vehicles and facilities.

In 2017, offenses related to code-of-conduct violations were decriminalized. Although this change was made to reduce burdens on vulnerable populations, officers noted that administrative citations have proven ineffective in deterring prohibited activities on transit.

Regarding fare enforcement, the consensus was that addressing fare evasion is crucial for reducing criminal activity in Metro stations and vehicles. The new tap-out fare gate trial showed promise as a means to improve fare payment compliance.

When it comes to individuals suspected of consuming drugs on the transit system, citations are often issued for intoxication or smoking rather than drug use specifically, due to the difficulty in proving that the substance being smoked is illegal. Laboratory testing of confiscated materials is required to confirm the type of controlled substance. In cases where individuals are observed ingesting or smoking a suspected drug, confirmation can be impossible if there is insufficient material to test. As a result, obtaining accurate data on the scale of drug use on transit remains highly challenging.

Jurisdiction and Deployment.

As of the time of writing, law enforcement on Metro’s system is contracted to three local police departments: the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD), the Long Beach Police Department (LBPD), and the Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department (LASD). Before 2017, law enforcement was solely provided by the LASD, which enforced fares and Section 640 of California’s Penal Code. After 2017, Metro divided the responsibility for law enforcement among the three agencies and transferred the enforcement of fares and the Code of Conduct to the agency’s in-house security team. Possessing an illegal drug or substance is a violation of LA Metro’s Customer Code of Conduct, carrying a penalty of ejection from the transit system and/or a notice of exclusion (LA Metro 2017). In June 2024, the Metro Board of Directors approved the establishment of a dedicated transit police force, the Transit Community Public Safety Department. The new department will allow Metro to transition from the existing three-contract model to a Metro Police service within the next 5 years (LA Metro 2024a).

Contracts with all three agencies require they report specific key performance indicators (e.g., the number of arrests related to the consumption or possession of drugs) although a report cannot be filed until the drug has undergone testing in the LAPD’s crime lab. Collaboration between Metro and law enforcement agencies regarding drug use are nascent but developing. Although all three contracted law enforcement agencies collect their own incident statistics,

regular meetings occur weekly between them and Metro to exchange ideas, discuss trends and identify overlapping information. To improve the collection of information, Metro established a data analytics and intelligence unit with the goal of consolidating and standardizing data in a single dashboard, as well as to remedy jurisdictional complexity (e.g., the line crosses all three police jurisdictions, all of which report data differently). This will allow Metro to gain a clearer understanding of incidents on its system.

Targeted deployment of law enforcement personnel is difficult, given the size of Metro’s system and service area. This difficulty is amplified by the many bus routes crossing through multiple jurisdictions, each of which have different policies regarding law enforcement. Despite this, law enforcement tries to focus its efforts on certain stations and routes. The LAPD cross-references its own data with the 10 bus routes with the highest rates of incidents and deploys five teams consisting of two officers each to patrol them. Officers also patrol individual stations (e.g., the terminal stations of the G and J BRT lines), particularly during night hours. Because most terminals are often community service ‘deserts,’ officers typically direct individuals back onto the bus toward more central, densely populated areas where services are more readily available. As part of Metro’s safety improvements at Westlake/MacArthur Park station, a layered deployment of law enforcement personnel was implemented to increase the visible presence of staff at the station (LA Metro 2024a).

Law enforcement personnel have expressed concern about their capacity and the capacity of outreach teams to handle incidents regarding mental health and drug use. LAPD have deployed 22 officers who have mental health experience and training to the transit system. However, law enforcement and outreach teams alike both suffer from a shortage of personnel and resources. Officers deployed to the Homeless Outreach Proactive Engagement (HOPE) team—a co-response initiative between the LAPD and Los Angeles Homeless Services Authority—noted that beds are often all filled by late morning every day. The HOPE Team police officers complete 40 hours of Mental Health Intervention Training (MHIT). Officers indicated they feel they have been used as a sort of “catch-all” to respond to all forms of incidents on the system, partially because police departments can be contacted 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, unlike mental health or drug use supports.

Customer Engagement

Instances of drug use on Metro’s system are primarily reported through the Transit Watch app, although customers can also call or text a phone number to contact the agency. Any customer-reported information regarding drug use is sent to the Security Operations Center (SOC).

In February 2023, the agency launched a 30-day pilot known as the “Drug-Free Metro Campaign” on the A, B, and E Lines, which aimed to reduce crime related to drug use, increase the awareness of the risks associated with drug use, and provide support to individuals experiencing addiction. Customer service, security, and outreach staff were strategically deployed across all three lines, and an anti-drug communications campaign—the “See something, say something” campaign—was started by the Customer Experience department. After the initial success of the Drug-Free Metro Campaign, the Metro Board of Directors voted in favor of a 90-day extension in March 2023 (LA Metro 2023a).

Key Takeaways

• Numerous infrastructure improvements through a CPTED lens have been piloted on the system, in particular at Westlake/MacArthur Park station—a hotspot for unwanted behavior such as illicit drug use.

• LA Metro has temporary shelter beds for unhoused individuals seeking shelter in transit facilities, which are funded through a contract with the LA County Department of Health Services. SEPTA has a similar program for shelter beds assigned to the transit agency.
• An extensive team of Ambassadors patrol the system, assisting riders and administering naloxone when required.
• A dedicated transit police force is to be established and will replace the existing contracted three-agency law enforcement model.

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Context

The Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority (SEPTA) operates a unique network of heavy rail, light rail, commuter rail, streetcar, bus, and trolleybus services across a service area of 844 square miles and a population of 3,475,337 as of 2023. That year, SEPTA’s system served 196,712,712 unlinked trips (FTA 2024).

SEPTA has demonstrated leadership in addressing drug use on their transit system by developing the Safety, Cleaning, Ownership, Partnership and Engagement (SCOPE) program, which was awarded APTA’s 2022 Innovation Award. SCOPE is a comprehensive, compassionate strategy to connect vulnerable individuals with social services while ensuring a safe and clean transit system for riders and employees. The City of Philadelphia and surrounding communities have long been at the forefront of the opioid epidemic and the effects of this are observed on SEPTA’s system, so staff from SEPTA have been a leading voice in the industry on how to address this problem. Table 8 provides a summary of SEPTA staff roles and responsibilities.

Data Collection Programs

SEPTA collects a wide range of data from police, operations, and outreach programs. SEPTA staff have developed a set of KPIs and benchmarks to track data and measure program effectiveness against stated goals and objectives. Data includes direct measures of impacts (e.g., naloxone deployments, interactions with vulnerable populations) and secondary measures that may correlate with increased drug use on transit (track falls, Transit Watch reports, removals). These data are collated and reported both publicly and to the SEPTA Board. Table 9 summarizes SEPTA’s data collection programs.

Agency Programs

Occupational Health and Safety

SEPTA staff have sought to improve employee safety when handling situations surrounding open drug use. Cleaning is the primary responsibility of custodial staff or, in severe cases,

Table 8. SEPTA staff roles and responsibilities.

Table 9. SEPTA Data collection programs.

third-party contractors. PPE training, biohazard kits, and safe needle disposal guidance are provided. Transit vehicles are taken out of service if operators self-report they are adversely affected by exposure to airborne drugs or drug residue, or if needles are found. With respect to air filtration on buses, SEPTA has specified Lumin-Air Transit’s MERV-13 filters for its order of New Flyer buses as part of an initiative to upgrade the filtration level of SEPTA’s entire fleet (Mass Transit Magazine 2022). The performance of this filtration system claims to be equivalent to a MERV-13 rated filter. It is unknown how well this filtration system performs as a control measure against smoke from drug use in vehicles compared with a MERV-13 or higher rated filter without further evaluation of efficacy (Mass Transit Magazine 2022).

Safety protocols exist for SEPTA staff when encountering open, visible drug use. Transit staff, including maintenance staff and contractors, are encouraged to report instances of drug use on transit, but not to engage with the individual using drugs. If drug use is detected by a transit operator, they are limited to making a non-confrontational announcement reminding all passengers that drug use is strictly prohibited in any SEPTA vehicle or station. Operators are directed to report this incident to the SOC, which alerts police, outreach workers, or security officers to respond accordingly. Safety protocols are also being put in place to protect custodial or janitorial staff. For instance, if maintenance or service personnel encounter open drug use when working on elevators, these personnel are instructed to notify the SOC and return later to complete the task.

Station and Operations

During the COVID-19 pandemic, SEPTA staff noted that the vulnerable population seeking refuge on its system increased for various reasons (e.g., to consume illicit drugs, find safety, and shelter from bad/extreme weather). With respect to service operations, delays across the network have been exacerbated by individuals using the system as a place of shelter rather than riding the system to reach a destination. Such individuals have refused to vacate trains and platforms and have fallen on the tracks (SEPTA 2021a). SEPTA operations staff closely monitor the number of instances where an individual has jumped or fallen into the track area, by station and date (shown in Figure 19). Track falls are deeply concerning because they can cause potential injury or loss of life to the individual.

In March 2021, Somerset Station on the Market-Frankford Line was closed for 2 weeks because of extensive damage from individuals using the station as a shelter. Over $1 million in investment was required during the closure to bring the station back to a functioning state of good repair and operations. Elevator monitor-attendants are deployed to maintain a level of

Source: David Cooper

awareness and safety at both eastbound and westbound elevators, while also aiming to maintain a good state of repair at these elevators. Damage, improper use, and illicit behavior in elevators is an ongoing, systemwide challenge and expense. All SEPTA personnel, including outreach workers, are directed to monitor use of the elevators, and daily cleaning measures ensure a safe, clean environment for individuals who depend on these elevators.

Numerous design changes and enhancements across SEPTA stations and vehicles have been made to prevent crime, improve security, and promote the overall cleanliness and quality of the system. These efforts aim to deter loitering and open drug use, while protecting individuals under the influence of drugs from accidental self-harm. For example, to mitigate the number of track falls, SEPTA has explored installing platform edge carbon fiber fencing at Somerset Station to “catch” disoriented individuals before they fall onto the tracks. SEPTA Police’s virtual patrol center monitors the transit network with over 30,000 cameras and allows for immediate real-time visuals of the network for officers. In early 2024, SEPTA launched a pilot of a new fare gate design at the 69th Street Transportation Center (see Figure 20). The new fare gates, which are over 7 feet high, were deployed to reduce fare evasion on the system (Hill 2024).

In 2023, SEPTA nearly tripled its maintenance custodial budget compared to 2022 to support cleaning efforts. This increased funding has enabled the implementation of enhanced cleaning protocols (e.g., sanitizing vehicles and high-touch surfaces). Maintenance custodians are also required to monitor elevators and restrooms at stations with significant issues related to safety. Additionally, intensive cleaning campaigns were introduced on weekends for specific stations that required temporary shutdowns for deep cleaning. These efforts also included emphasis on regular needle removals.

Outreach

SCOPE Program.

When SCOPE (see Figure 21) was launched in 2021, the program “harnessed every person and resource at SEPTA to be a part of the solution” (SEPTA 2021a). While

recognizing the needs of vulnerable populations seeking shelter on transit, SEPTA’s SCOPE program intentionally balances compassion and effective action in addressing this complex societal issue with its core mission of providing safe, reliable, accessible, and customer-focused transit services. The SCOPE initiative has three main objectives:

1. Ensure a safe working environment for all SEPTA employees;
2. Provide a safe and clean transportation system for riders; and
3. Connect vulnerable individuals within the SEPTA service area to critical community-based social services, including housing, mental health care and substance use treatment programs, so that they can reintegrate into society and lead healthy, fulfilling lives.

Through the SCOPE program, SEPTA seeks to connect vulnerable populations with resources, raise public awareness of the ongoing humanitarian crisis in Philadelphia, and inspire collective action. While maintaining its core mission as a transportation agency, SEPTA actively engages with governmental and nongovernmental organizations to advocate for additional housing and resources and to partner in addressing barriers that prevent vulnerable populations from breaking the cycle of homelessness.

The term “vulnerable populations” refers to individuals experiencing homelessness, drug use disorders, mental health challenges, and survivors of abuse and sexual violence. To build internal buy-in across SEPTA staff, a Vulnerable Population Working Group was established. This working group comprises senior staff working across six sub groups: (1) enhancing communication with employees and customers; (2) improving service coordination and funding; (3) enhancing data collection and reporting; (4) reinforcing infrastructure; (5) enhancing safety and security; and (6) facilitating spaces for community advocacy and government transparency. This structure ensures that all SEPTA departments are actively involved in the response to homelessness and drug use disorders.

SEPTA Outreach Specialists are deployed daily across the system. What sets SEPTA’s approach apart is the clear directive that each interaction with a vulnerable individual involves guiding them off SEPTA property with compassion and respect, while providing access to essential support services (e.g., mental health and drug treatment centers and housing). SEPTA’s outreach teams are expected to inform individuals who are using the system as shelter or riding without a destination that such behavior will not be tolerated. This approach distinguishes SEPTA from the other four participating transit agencies, which typically request voluntary compliance and allow individuals to remain unless they choose to leave. In those systems, outreach workers engage with individuals to offer assistance, and if the assistance is declined, outreach workers disengage. In contrast, SEPTA’s outreach partners not only enforce expectations but also work actively to connect individuals with necessary resources. SEPTA’s SCOPE team is an advocate for SEPTA’s priorities with respect to supporting vulnerable populations that are using SEPTA property as shelter. SEPTA frequently communicates with key partners (e.g., the City of Philadelphia’s Office of Homelessness, Mental Health Services, and Addiction Services). If outreach workers are experiencing barriers referring vulnerable individuals to temporary housing, communication between SEPTA and the relevant partners has been successful at removing such barriers.

Figure 22 displays data recorded by SEPTA’s outreach teams from Q1 to Q3 of 2024. Outreach workers conducted approximately 108,000 engagements—each engagement represents an individual who was guided off SEPTA’s system. Of these removals, 86% did not require police assistance—asking individuals to leave the system, either by directing them to services such as housing or moving across the street off SEPTA property, was highly successful. Referrals to treatment and services as well as warm hand-offs (where an outreach worker directly and physically connects an individual to a social service provider) are recorded by the outreach teams. From Q1 to Q3 of 2024, 1,182 warm hand-offs were recorded. Naloxone was administered by outreach

workers 220 times in the same period. Outreach workers will administer Narcan and CPR in the event of an opioid overdose until emergency medical personnel arrive on scene. SEPTA staff indicated that the SCOPE outreach teams have saved 581 lives with Narcan since 2022 to date. Staff also indicated that, as a result of the SCOPE program, SEPTA has realized a 44% reduction in homelessness on the transit system.

Although SEPTA maintains contracts with local organizations to staff SEPTA’s outreach teams, there is a deliberate staffing approach to these teams. Staff conducting outreach activities on SEPTA are Certified Peer Specialists, who are individuals who self-identify as a person with lived experience with mental health or co-occurring challenges (a co-existing mental illness and drug use disorder). Peer Specialists receive training to provide peer support and to establish trusting and respectful relationships to support others in their recovery process.

SEPTA has acquired 500 emergency shelter placements as part of their efforts to reduce the prevalence of homelessness on their system. This initiative is based on a similar program run by LA Metro, which also involved funding emergency shelter placements for temporary use by vulnerable individuals. Although SEPTA’s primary mission is as a public transit authority rather than providing housing for vulnerable populations, their investment in emergency shelter stays shows their commitment to supporting individuals in the community who are experiencing homelessness, mental health and/or drug use disorders.

Partnerships. SEPTA has established strategic partnerships with a variety of institutions and community organizations to better address the needs of vulnerable populations on the transit system. By leveraging a diverse range of expertise, these partnerships enable more comprehensive, care-based community support. SEPTA actively supports and facilitates access for these organizations to engage with individuals sheltering on transit.

Key partners include Savage Sisters and Covenant House, among others, all of which share a mission to support vulnerable individuals using the transit system. In 2021, SEPTA and

Drexel University launched the Health Navigators program as part of Drexel’s community-based practicum experience (see Figure 23). The program’s success drew interest from Cabrini University, which now incorporates transit-based outreach into its first-year health advocacy practicum for medical students.

SEPTA’s public recognition of these partnerships in local media has sparked further interest from other community organizations, creating opportunities for additional collaboration. These growing partnerships act as a force multiplier, expanding the availability of social services and improving outreach capacity. Moreover, they contribute to greater financial efficiency within SEPTA’s outreach efforts by sharing resources and expertise.

Enforcement

SEPTA has had a dedicated transit police department since 1981. Transit Police Officers are tasked with policing the entire SEPTA system, which spans five counties in Pennsylvania—Bucks, Chester, Delaware, Montgomery, and Philadelphia—as well as three states: Delaware, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania (see Figure 24). This dedicated transit police force comprises nearly 259 sworn police officers who serve the 2,200 square-mile SEPTA service area. The transit police department offers enhanced support and expertise in managing and policing the public transit system. Transit police patrol by car and foot (or train) and provide special operation units as needed to support the daily operations of the officers.

SEPTA’s mission is to make homelessness a rare, brief, and nonrecurring event across the transit system. A major part of this strategy is engaging with the vulnerable population by guiding them off the transit system—ideally into social services. If an engagement is unsuccessful, SEPTA police can be called to assist in removing an individual violating SEPTA’s Code of Conduct or a local ordinance. Relevant violations include loitering, using SEPTA services and facilities for purposes other than transportation, obstructing pedestrian flow, and smoking.

Source: SEPTA

Source: SEPTA

Regarding the enforcement of state laws and SEPTA’s Code of Conduct against drug use, transit police can issue an Administrative Enforcement Notice for smoking or disorderly conduct, which carries a $25.00 fine and falls under quality-of-life violations. As noted by other case example cities, charging an individual for drug possession is challenging because of the need for testing to identify a presumptive drug. On the other hand, fare enforcement has become a priority for officers as a preventive measure against crime. In 2024, SEPTA officers began issuing summary citations for fare evasion that require a court hearing, as a perceived indirect method to reduce drug use and related criminal activity on transit. Previously, in 2019, SEPTA transit officers implemented a $25.00 administrative fine for an initial fare evasion offense to ease the burden on vulnerable individuals and reduce pressure on the court system. The shift back to issuing summary citations has been credited with a reduction in crime so far in 2024 compared to the same period in 2023, although concerns about equity and increased caseloads on the courts have been raised.

Officer discretion is practiced regarding the optimal approach to enforce drug use on transit or to divert a person with apparent drug dependency into appropriate treatment. As the presence of xylazine has become more acute in Philadelphia, officers noted the need for vulnerable individuals to receive acute medical care. Xylazine, also known by its street name “tranq,” is a non-narcotic analgesic drug used in veterinary medicine. Although not classified as a controlled substance under American Federal Legislation, xylazine is not approved for human use. A major side effect of xylazine is severe skin wounds (e.g., open sores, ulcers, and abscesses) regardless of the method of administration. Individuals with repeated exposure to xylazine often need medical attention and officers can connect these individuals with outreach team members, including SEPTA’s partners who provide mobile wound care.

SEPTA Police has access to 30,000 cameras across the system, which has been effective in identifying vulnerable individuals in need of assistance along with detecting anti-social behavior. This has been particularly useful in being able to monitor elevators by using two-way audio communication, which allows for law enforcement to virtually deter illicit behavior surrounding open drug use. SEPTA Police have also established a Detective Squad that can easily identify repeat or violent offenders across transit facilities. If a crime is committed, SEPTA can share surveillance footage with municipal police departments who can identify and arrest problem individuals.

SEPTA’s transit police carry Narcan and are trained in the administration of Narcan. In 2023, the Transit Police administered 490 doses of Narcan. Figure 25 shows the number of Narcan deployments on the transit system quarterly dating back to 2021.

Customer Engagement

The unprecedented amount of open drug use and social disorder across SEPTA has negatively impacted customers. For example, significant damage to bathrooms as a result of drug use at numerous transit centers has negatively affected customer satisfaction. SEPTA has considered adopting prison-like fixtures for SEPTA washrooms to deter future desecration. Impacts surrounding elevator unreliability due to drug use as outlined above have also negatively affected customers, especially those with accessibility or mobility needs. Customer perception of the safety of the system has also been negatively affected by the consistent presence of illicit criminal activity and drug use.

To solicit ongoing feedback from riders and employees and provide them with an immediate way to call for help, SEPTA uses “Transit Watch App” and “Veritas” (an online, customer service reporting tool). Customers and employees use these tools to report issues, make recommendations, file complaints, and offer commendations to SEPTA. The Transit Watch app can be downloaded to a computer, smartphone, or tablet (SEPTA 2021b). According to recent data from Veritas and feedback from the Transit Watch app, homelessness is among the top three report types, along with smoking and cleanliness. These reporting tools also help SEPTA identify where the problem areas are on the transit system so that the agency can target the deployment of its resources.

Key Takeaways

• The SCOPE program aims to connect vulnerable individuals with support while enhancing the safety and cleanliness of the transit system.
• SEPTA’s Hub of Hope provides vital services and supplies (e.g., clothing, laundry, health care) to individuals experiencing homelessness on transit. SEPTA is the only transit agency documented in this report that has an on-site outreach services facility on transit system property.
• In a move similar to that of LA Metro, SEPTA has sought to reduce homelessness on its system by acquiring 500 emergency shelter placements for unhoused individuals.
• SEPTA’s dedicated Transit Police officers carry and administer Narcan.

Portland, Oregon

Context

The Tri-County Metropolitan Transportation District of Oregon (TriMet) operates an extensive transit network consisting of light rail, commuter rail, streetcar, and bus services across three counties in the Portland-Vancouver-Hillsboro Metropolitan Statistical Area. TriMet has a service area of 378 square miles and a population of 1,526,171 as of 2023 and served 61,925,629 unlinked trips on its system that same year (FTA 2024). Table 10 provides a summary of TriMet staff roles and responsibilities.

Addressing transit safety has been a significant focus for the transit agency. TriMet has developed and deployed several program responses, including additional transit security officers, customer safety officers, and safety response teams onto the transit system. In 2021, the state of Oregon decriminalized the possession and personal use of small amounts of drugs (e.g., heroin, methamphetamine, LSD, and oxycodone). The Oregon state legislature is reversing course, proposing that criminal penalties for drug possession will be re-introduced, although depending on the circumstance, individuals will be provided the opportunity to seek treatment before facing criminal consequences. TriMet has communicated its support for the Oregon State Senate Bill 1553-1 (Oregon State Senate 2024), which was passed into law March 27, 2024. The bill makes illegal drug use on transit a Class A misdemeanor. Specifically, this bill adds use of illicit drugs to

Table 10. TriMet staff roles and responsibilities.

an existing state statute that governs behavior on public transit giving police additional tools to make transit systems drug-free zones. TriMet was also a participating transit agency in a recent study conducted by UW on the prevalence of fentanyl and methamphetamine on public transit vehicles and its potential effects on both transit operators and customers (Baker, Beaudreau, and Zuidema 2023).

Data Collection Programs

Instances of drug use may be reported to TriMet through various channels both internally and externally (e.g., via Webex, the call center, social media, and other complaint and report portals). On-street staff such as the outreach-based Safety Response Team (SRT) use Smartsheet, which allows them to report incidents as well as keep track of work performed and other interactions. While in the system, frontline staff are instructed to report anything they witness or observe regarding drug use. Data collection on types of drugs is limited because staff are given no formal training on different types of drugs. Incident data is only analyzed and provided on request. TriMet shares data with entities such as academic institutions conducting studies and law enforcement agencies undertaking criminal investigations.

Data is also shared with local media outlets at their request. Data has been used externally for advocacy purposes, particularly for regulatory changes. In particular, incident data was recently used to advocate in favor of Oregon Senate Bill 1553, which, upon its enactment in January 2025, will render the use of illicit substances on transit a Class A misdemeanor, punishable by up to 364 days in jail, a fine of $6,250, or both (York 2024).

Counts of employee exposure to drug use are tracked using the Accident and Incident Database (ACID) by month. The type of drug being used in a reported incident is not specified. Instead, drugs are classified into one of three categories: (1) Noxious Fumes; (2) Illicit Drugs; or (3) Fentanyl. Table 11 summarizes information about TriMet’s data collection programs.

Table 11. TriMet data collection programs.

Agency Programs

Occupational Health and Safety

Drug use has led to challenges with cleaning, maintenance, and general stewardship on TriMet’s system—a significant portion of cleaning efforts at MAX light rail stations are related to drug use (e.g., removing burned foil, cleaning broken glass, removing biohazards and needles, and other general vandalism). Incidents became so frequent that a new SOC was established to handle cleaning reports, because the existing Operations Control Center was overwhelmed.

Station and Operations

Standard Operating Procedures.

TriMet staff indicated a strong correlation between drug use and safety incidents. In response, the agency has implemented initiatives to help protect the safety of its staff and customers from potential exposure to drugs on its system, particularly through the adoption of various SOPs. In the case of airborne substances being released within an enclosed environment such as on a bus or train, TriMet’s SOP requires the driver to park the vehicle at the next stop or station and evacuate all passengers if there is an incident where drug smoke becomes airborne in the vehicle (bus or LRT). The vehicle is then ventilated for 15 minutes until indoor air quality returns to acceptable levels. The number of aeration incidents across the system is recorded and reported to the Executive Director of Safety and Security. SOPs also exist that regulate how operators report and respond to incidents.

Infrastructure Changes.

Steps have been taken to re-evaluate design standards for large terminals and stations, specifically bus shelters. This has included changing the layout of bus shelters, removing shelters altogether at some stations, and eliminating glass from new shelter designs. In addition, staff now conduct site visits to an area before the installation of a bus shelter to ensure it will not become a potential site for drug use. TriMet has also made changes to its cleaning procedures in response to drug use across its system. Staff have requested needle-resistant gloves, pressure washing equipment, and self-defense items such as pepper spray. Additionally, staff and outside contractors have requested that security be present when they are cleaning or performing maintenance, in particular on elevators. The increasing instances of fire on platforms is also a point of concern for staff. However, changes to cleaning procedures have been hindered by challenges in hiring staff. Public washrooms are not provided on TriMet’s system, and the agency has no plans to do so in the future.

Outreach

TriMet has a well-established outreach program focused on individuals engaging in drug use. The primary outreach initiative is the Safety Response Team (SRT) (see Figure 26). In addition, staff from TriMet’s Public Safety Operations (PSO) Division and the Portland Street Response (PSR)—a City of Portland program that assists individuals experiencing mental health and substance use crises—provide support on the transit system when requested.

The SRT was created to provide an alternative to police response for incidents involving individuals in need and was added as a part of TriMet’s Reimagine Public Safety Initiative. SRT staff undergo 12 weeks of field and system familiarization training before they are fully deployed. SRT staff have four primary responsibilities: (1) increasing staff visibility on the system; (2) connecting individuals in need to addiction, housing, and mental health resources (e.g., PSR or culture-specific resources); (3) providing necessary supplies (e.g., food, water, and hygiene products) to individuals; and (4) responding to incidents that may not automatically require police intervention (e.g., smoking or drug use on platforms and wellness checks on individuals). SRT members receive training on first aid and on responding to livability-related issues, such as addiction, homelessness, and drug use in public. SRT members also receive training in communication and responses to suspicious circumstances, mental health crises, and other issues (e.g., educating riders during instances of minor code violations).

SRT staff occasionally provide targeted outreach, including visiting encampments. When helping individuals, staff must use their discretion to determine if they can safely intervene in a situation, or if they must contact the SOC for support. Staff cannot ignore individuals in need and are required to take some degree of action; however, SRT members cannot forcibly remove individuals using drugs from the transit system. SRT members carry naloxone and are trained in its use. Aside from SRT members, Transit Police also carry naloxone.

The SRT collaborates with the Senior Coordinator for Vulnerable Populations to address reported encampments on TriMet properties and to provide unhoused people with information and help navigating community-based resources.

The SRT hosts weekly meetings, shares information with various working groups, and sits on various committees within the agency. Outreach data, collected on smartphones issued to team members, is analyzed to identify emerging patterns of behavior so the SRT can focus its efforts.

Source: TriMet

Although the SRT can monitor its effectiveness at reducing disturbances and operator assaults, due to privacy concerns, TriMet staff cannot access data on agency referrals, so TriMet is developing its own database to better monitor the effectiveness and performance of outreach efforts.

TriMet has begun simultaneously increasing funding to their outreach teams and increasing the number of security personnel and Customer Safety Supervisors that enforce the TriMet code (Altstadt 2023). Security personnel on TriMet educate offenders about the TriMet code and inform them that TriMet security and/or police will be called if they refuse to leave or stop consuming the illicit drug. To support this approach, TriMet has increased the number of Customer Safety Supervisors from 18 in 2022, to 46 in 2023 (Altstadt 2023, 21). Additionally, TriMet advocated for the passing of Senate Bill 1553, which will render the use of illicit drugs (e.g., fentanyl, methamphetamine, crack cocaine, and heroin) on transit a Class A misdemeanor—the most serious of misdemeanors (York 2024). These policies are an example of an integrated approach as TriMet is expanding assistance to unhoused people who use drugs, while advocating for legislation to address open drug use in order to give staff additional powers to remove those who refuse to stop engaging in drug use in transit environments.

Enforcement

Law enforcement on TriMet’s system primarily consists of two types of personnel: Transit Police Officers and contracted Transit Security Officers. TriMet’s Transit Police Division is provided by the Multnomah County Sheriff’s Office (MCSO) (see Figure 27). Enforcement regarding drug use in general is governed by the Oregon Revised Statutes (ORS). In addition to ORS, TriMet also has codes pertaining to possession or use of drugs on the transit system. Police are not limited by TriMet code but may choose to defer to it for minor offenses of ORS/TriMet code, rather than cite, arrest, or incarcerate low-level offenders. This decision process is at the discretion of the Law Enforcement Officer on scene and is almost always based on the severity

Source: TriMet

of circumstances and the impact on transit and/or the public. Data such as the number of arrests and naloxone deployments are tracked, although privacy legislation limits data sharing.

Two revisions to Oregon drug law will significantly alter the legal landscape of substance use on transit: House Bill 4002 and House Bill 1553. House Bill 4002, which came into effect on September 1, 2024, recriminalized the possession of small amounts of hard drugs. Beginning that month, convicted individuals could choose to either spend up to 180 days in jail or undertake a mandatory addiction treatment program. House Bill 1553, which comes into effect on January 1, 2025, will render the use of illicit drugs on transit a Class A misdemeanor—the most serious class of misdemeanors—which will be punishable by up to 364 days in jail, a fine of $6,250, or both. In addition, House Bill 1553 will classify substance use on transit as a “drug-designated misdemeanor,” thereby allowing convicted individuals access to state-funded addiction treatment (York 2024).

Customer Engagement

TriMet provides numerous communication methods for customers to report instances of drug use. Customers may communicate with TriMet staff via text, web, phone, and social media, as well as through emergency alarm buttons on trains. However, the agency does not conduct drug-use–specific surveys with its customers, focusing instead on general issues of safety. Engagement with individuals engaging in drug use mostly takes the form of referring them to various social services, which is facilitated through TriMet’s SRT—individuals who connect people on the transit system with off-site social services such as shelters, mental health resources, and addiction services.

Key Takeaways

• TriMet uses a wide variety of outreach, enforcement, and support staff to achieve a comprehensive multidisciplinary approach.
• Some non-police staff roles (e.g., the SRT) were created to enhance customer and staff safety and improving the ability to connect individuals with support without having to rely on Transit Police.
• Legislative changes are underway to make possession of illicit drugs on public transit a misdemeanor offense. This effort is designed to make riding public transit safer.