CHAPTER 7

Innovative Strategies

The following sections present the information practitioners need to understand, evaluate, and implement the traffic demand and congestion management strategies best suited for their airports. These sections describe strategies applicable to all commercial-service airports recognizing that they each have different or distinguishing characteristics. Included in each strategy are detailed descriptions of the benefits, disadvantages, capital and operating costs, implementation schedule, potential phasing, flexibility to adapt to unanticipated demands and operations, policy and regulatory issues, and stakeholder impacts and coordination. Descriptions of innovative case studies and technologies are also presented. These strategies are intended to be readily implementable, as opposed to those that require large capital investments and are disruptive to airport operations (e.g., widening or lengthening an elevated curbside roadway or extending rail service to the terminal).

There are three primary strategy categories: Enforcement, Traffic Demand, and Congestion Management Strategies. There are four complementary and/or stand-alone strategy categories: Customer Service, Sustainability, Accommodating TNCs, and Accommodating AVs. Furthermore, numerous supporting technologies are available to enhance these primary and complemental strategies. These supporting technologies are capable of monitoring traffic volumes and locations (by type of vehicle or individual vehicle), automatically dispatching taxicabs and other on-demand services, supporting curbside enforcement by directing officers to vehicles needing attention, guiding motorists by displaying changeable directional or parking information, and can enhance the primary and complemental strategies in other ways as well.

7.1 Enforcement Strategies

Enforcement of rules and regulations governing airport roadway traffic and curbside operations is a key element of almost all strategies. Without enforcement, some motorists are likely to disobey regulations governing traffic operations and add to roadway congestion. If a few motorists do so, additional drivers may perceive that they too can safely ignore rules and regulations, leading to traffic congestion and delays. This section discusses the programs and technologies to support the personnel responsible for enforcement. Examples include

• 7.1.1. Enforcement of airport roadways and curbsides
• 7.1.2. Control of crosswalks—officers versus signals
• 7.1.3. Measures to support curbside enforcement: warning messages, ticketing, and towing
• 7.1.4. Regulatory sign placement and conformance

7.1.1 Enforcement of Airport Roadways and Curbsides

Key considerations related to enforcing airport roadways include

1. Determining the number of officers needed to manage terminal curbside areas and enforce traffic rules.
2. Using law enforcement officers and traffic control officers.
3. Using technology in enforcement.
4. Balancing customer experience and strict enforcement.
5. Enforcing consistently and actively during peak and non-peak periods.

Number of Officers Required to Manage Terminal Curbside Areas and Enforce Traffic Rules

The number of officers required to manage terminal curbside areas and enforce traffic rules varies among airports reflecting multiple factors including

• The amount of curbside traffic during the peak period, and the composition of this traffic. Typically, managing commercial ground transportation vehicles and enforcing traffic rules requires fewer officers than managing the equivalent number of private vehicles.
• The number of curbside levels and terminal buildings. More officers can be assigned to the busy levels or terminal areas as warranted as opposed to having the same number of officers at all locations.
• The terminal curbside configuration (e.g., parallel curbsides separated by a raised island versus a single curbside). Patrolling a curbside roadway consisting of an inner and outer curbside requires fewer officers than if the same total length of space were on a single curbside. The allocation of one of the parallel curbs to commercial ground transportation can also impact the number of enforcement officers needed.
• The use of foot patrols versus motorized patrols. Motorized patrols are more visible to motorists, convey greater authority than foot patrols, and allow officers to respond to violators and roadway congestion more quickly. Typically, fewer officers are required with motorized patrols because officers can oversee more of the curbside and roadway areas compared with foot patrols. However, motorized patrols limit opportunities for one-on-one interaction with customers. Additionally, motorized patrols take physical space that could be otherwise used for other vehicle types and are typically unable to backtrack easily, whereas foot patrols can operate on the sidewalk or between travel lanes and can be more mobile in all directions.
• The relative adherence of the local population to posted regulations. In some communities, it is common for motorists to stop for pedestrians crossing a street, to allow gaps for weaving traffic, or to allow traffic to enter from a side street. In other communities, many motorists drive more aggressively.
• Curbside use tolerated in the past. The management of some airports has allowed motorists to dwell at the curbside for excessive periods or stop in through lanes while waiting for arriving passengers. Changing past behavior patterns can be challenging and require greater effort by enforcement staff.

Information reported by selected airports indicates that, depending upon the previously listed factors and other considerations, one officer can patrol between 400 to 800 linear feet of terminal curbside. For example, an airport with about 7,500 linear feet of curbside divided among two levels reported having 15 officers patrolling the curbsides during peak periods, or about one officer for every 500 feet. These officers are in addition to those required to patrol non-terminal area roadways or provide security elsewhere at the airport.

Using Law Enforcement Officers and Traffic Control Officers

Traffic flow management and enforcement responsibilities can be assigned to law enforcement officers (LEOs), who are sworn officers; traffic control officers (TCOs), who are civilian officers; or more frequently a combination of the two. Use of LEOs and TCOs varies widely among airports, reflecting each airport’s prioritization of customer service and enforcement, budget, configuration, governance, and other factors.

LEOs are public sector employees sworn in as police officers, sheriffs, or other positions to enforce the laws in the jurisdiction they serve. An LEO is licensed to carry a weapon, arrest violators, issue tickets, and perform other duties. At an airport, the responsibilities of LEOs may include enforcing airport rules and regulations and federal security directives (e.g., supporting TSA staff), responding to airport emergencies, conducting patrols and investigations, and managing traffic flow. LEOs working at airports may be (1) a member of the airport staff who reports to the airport director or (2) a member of a municipal police unit or patrol district assigned to the airport who reports to the municipal chief of police while coordinating with airport staff.

TCOs are public or private sector employees whose responsibilities at an airport may include managing roadway traffic flows, enforcing curbside parking and commercial ground transportation regulations, and performing airfield access gate controls and badge checks (a TCO is shown in Figure 7-1). TCOs are not licensed to carry a weapon, arrest individuals, intercede in fights or disputes among drivers or customers, or ticket moving vehicles. When enforcement of such actions is necessary, a TCO must request support from a LEO. At airports, TCOs may be employed directly by an airport operator or by a private contractor retained to enforce terminal curbside regulations, manage parking facilities, provide customer assistance, or perform other duties. When a private contractor is responsible for providing TCOs, often these services are included in a contract for broader services such as parking management.

Decisions regarding the assignment of LEOs and TCOs are influenced by differences in

• Costs of wages and benefits. The loaded costs (salaries plus benefits) of an LEO are generally more than those of a TCO particularly if the LEO is an employee of a municipal police force. The loaded costs of an LEO may be 1.5 to more than 2.0 times greater than those of a TCO depending on whether the TCO is employed directly by the airport or by a private contractor. (Private contractors typically offer employees fewer benefits than airports.)
• Authorized tasks/need for back-up. As noted, the enforcement powers of TCOs are generally limited. When TCOs are responsible for traffic management and curbside enforcement, the support of LEOs is required to issue tickets to motorists in moving vehicles (versus citations for disobeying no stopping/standing regulations), intercede in fights, arrest individuals, and conduct other tasks that TCOs are not permitted to perform. As such, it is necessary for TCOs to have the support of LEOs, usually accessed through the landside operations team, and for LEOs to be readily available and responsive.
• Conflicting responsibilities/ready availability of staff for traffic control. The availability of LEOs to perform airport roadway and curbside enforcement during busy hours may be limited because of their multiple responsibilities, and which responsibilities are considered by their supervisors to have higher priority. LEOs whose supervisors are not located at the airport (i.e., those who are “downtown”) and are less familiar with the airport’s needs may have less availability for roadway traffic enforcement duties compared to LEOs whose supervisors report to the airport director. In contrast, normally the primary responsibility of TCOs is traffic enforcement and their availability is determined by the airport director or her/his representative.
• Level of attention. Some airport staff report that some LEOs, especially more senior officers, prefer to perform tasks that reflect their police training and background rather than manage curbside traffic. In contrast, TCOs recognize that their primary responsibility is traffic management. Some airport staff reported that it can be challenging to encourage LEOs to enforce curbside operations in accord with airport customer service goals.

Using Technology in Enforcement

The technology needed to support the enforcement of airport roadways and curbsides is rapidly improving and evolving. Some airports have started to explore the use of radar, Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), license plate recognition (LPR), video processing, and other spatial sensing technologies that are employed to monitor traffic on highways and the use of curb spaces along urban streets. These technologies allow for the accurate tracking of the volumes, paths, and stopping locations of individual vehicles and pedestrians. Using these technologies, it is possible to determine when and where individual vehicles stop, monitor their dwell times, and inform officers of violators requiring attention in support of ticketing or administrative actions.

Such technologies allow for and support improved roadway curbside management, and, by potentially reducing the number of required officers, the efficient enforcement of these facilities. In some environments, such technology, supported by variable messaging signs, may replace enforcement staff during non-peak periods.

Balancing Customer Experience and Strict Enforcement

Airport operators seek to enhance the experience of their customers, including those who are dropping off and picking up passengers. They also seek to minimize traffic congestion and ensure that motorists can easily access curb spaces. The airport operator’s desire to enhance the experience of their customers may suggest allowing motorists to linger at the curbsides, even when they are not actively picking up a passenger. The desire to minimize traffic congestion may suggest strict enforcement of posted regulations (e.g., those prohibiting standing or parking) and ticketing or towing motorists violating these regulations. Lax enforcement of motorists can

result in traffic congestion and delays. Motorists subject to strict enforcement may complain to airport management (or others) about being unfairly “harassed.” To find a balance between these two extremes, airports can

• Hire staff with customer service backgrounds. To manage roadway and curbside traffic, airports are increasingly employing staff who possess customer service skills or training, rather than hiring experienced enforcement staff. Staff with customer service skills tend to be more persuasive than authoritative. At some airports (e.g., Portland International) such staff are referred to as passenger service agents rather than TCOs. The focus is on skills in persuading the public to follow rules rather than on more traditional security experience.
• Train enforcement staff in customer service and traffic management. Airports surveyed report using certified instructors to provide customer service training to enforcement staff, as well as training in how to direct and manage vehicles. Officers are told how to approach motorists, instruct motorists to move, direct motorists to cell phone waiting areas (or other locations), respond to unruly or argumentative drivers, and when to request support from LEOs, if needed.
• Consider the appearance of TCOs. To enhance their authority and gain the respect of motorists, it is recommended that TCOs be dressed like police officers (e.g., black, dark blue, or gray uniforms with caps). In an attempt to enhance customer experience, one Florida airport provided uniforms consisting of Bermuda shorts, khaki shirts/blouses, and pith helmets, which resulted in motorists not heeding the officers’ directives.
• Rotate staff. At airports serving small communities, drivers may recognize enforcement officers, who may be acquaintances or distant relatives. Commercial ground transportation vehicle drivers, who serve an airport frequently, begin to recognize enforcement officers and may become friends with some. In both cases, motorists and commercial drivers may request special treatment, leading to claims of favoritism or uneven enforcement. Airports suggest rotating staff, and having them assigned to different posts and shifts to minimize or avoid such situations. Airports are best served by implementing strong accountability for any sort of favoritism, actual or perceived.
• Find the most effective form of patrol. Some airports supplement foot patrols of the curbsides with motorized patrols. The use of three-wheeled parking enforcement vehicles, as shown in Figure 7-2, can be effective and less expensive than the use of full-size automobiles. Three-wheeled parking enforcement vehicles allow the enforcement officers to patrol long curbside areas quickly, are very maneuverable, provide access to a bull horn or siren to encourage

Source: International Parking & Mobility Institute https://www.parking-mobility.org/2021/03/09/member-news-westward-industries-sfo/

• motorists to move, and support the impression of parking enforcement. However, safety can be a concern as drivers, focused on finding an empty space or waiting passengers, may not see or expect the smaller vehicle.

Enforcing Consistently and Actively During Peak and Non-Peak Periods

It is recommended that airports enforce roadways, particularly curbside areas, consistently and actively throughout the entire day.

Consistent enforcement of curbside regulations, during both peak and non-peak periods, is necessary. A baseline of acceptable behavior is recommended. An example would be to not allow any vehicle to be unattended at any time, regardless of roadway conditions. This kind of “black and white” policy leaves no room for interpretation or negotiation. If motorists are allowed to linger at the curbside during off-peak periods when the curbside is virtually empty (or leave their vehicle unattended), they may fail to understand why the same behavior is considered unacceptable during peak periods. Experience suggests that motorists will argue with enforcement officers, explaining that they were allowed to park here recently and should be allowed to do so again. This can be particularly challenging at airports with pronounced peaks and periods when there are very few vehicles stopped at the curbside.

Active enforcement implies the visible and regular appearance of officers during peak and off-peak periods. Unfortunately, if officers are not present, some motorists will dwell at the curb for longer than necessary or attempt to leave their vehicles unattended. For example, if an officer is responsible for both curbside enforcement and patrolling inside the terminal (or performing some other non-curbside duty), the officer may tend to remain in the terminal when traffic is light. However, the officer’s absence will lead to motorists violating posted regulations and believing they can do so at other times.

Enforcement should be supplemented with well-placed signage with clear messaging. Airport curbsides are frequently inundated with static messaging signage. Dwell signage should be given priority and reflect the message enforcement officers will be communicating.

7.1.2 Control of Crosswalks—Officers versus Signals

Management of pedestrian movements is a critical part of managing roadside congestion. Pedestrians crossing roadways between parking facilities and the terminal or between terminal islands and the terminal exacerbate congestion and increase the risk of accidents with injuries on the roadways. The proper use of crosswalks is directly related to enforcement or perceived enforcement of pedestrians and motorists. In the absence of positive controls, pedestrians will tend to cross curbside (or other) roadways at will and possibly jaywalk, ignoring traffic rules and designated crosswalks. To enhance the safety of both pedestrians and motorists, airports install fences and other barriers to encourage pedestrian use of designated crosswalks. Requiring pedestrians to use crosswalks helps motorists to see and avoid crossing pedestrians while simultaneously looking for waiting passengers and empty curbside spaces and attempting to avoid other vehicles.

The need for traffic controls at crosswalks depends on the volume of pedestrians and vehicles, the width of the roadway, the adequacy of the pedestrian refuge area (to ensure waiting pedestrians do not spill into traffic lanes), and the ability of motorists to see pedestrians in the crosswalk (e.g., this can be affected by the level of illumination and nearby columns obstructing visibility). Crosswalks connecting terminal buildings and parking facilities typically have more pedestrian traffic than do those only connecting the terminal and a center-island curbside.

Vehicular traffic at pedestrian crosswalks located on curbside (or other) roadways can be uncontrolled or controlled using stop signs, pedestrian-actuated signals, or officers. Key aspects of these options are described in the following:

• Uncontrolled crosswalks are often used when vehicular and pedestrian traffic volumes are low (i.e., there are frequent gaps in vehicular traffic allowing pedestrians to cross), the crosswalk and pedestrians in the crosswalk can be easily seen by drivers, and in communities where motorists commonly stop for crossing pedestrians. (The visibility of pedestrians using crosswalks can be enhanced and traffic speeds reduced through the use of raised crosswalks—see Section 7.3.3.)
• Stop signs may be used to control crosswalks, with the signs often placed in the middle of crosswalks to improve their visibility, as shown in Figure 7-3. The benefit of stop signs is that they provide positive traffic controls, are easily recognized, and thus enhance pedestrian safety at a much lower cost than crosswalk signals. The disadvantage of stop signs is that they require every motorist to come to a full stop, whether or not there is a pedestrian in the crosswalk,

• thus delaying traffic and adding to congestion. Stop signs are less effective in high-congestion environments where drivers are already distracted. Stop signs do not support the rapid movement of vehicles through the intersection, possibly adding to congestion.
• Pedestrian-actuated crosswalk signals (“Walk/Don’t Walk”) at airports are normally actuated by waiting pedestrians through the use of push buttons, thermal imaging devices, or motion detectors. At airports, pedestrian-actuated signals are normally used rather than signals operated on fixed time cycles. The primary benefits of pedestrian-actuated signals (compared to stop signs) are that motorists encounter fewer delays since (1) they only need to stop when there are waiting pedestrians and (2) there are larger gaps between crossing pedestrians as the signals promote pedestrian platooning (as opposed to motorists having to stop due to the random and infrequent arrival of pedestrians). Disadvantages of crosswalk signals are (1) normally, vehicular traffic is stopped for a fixed length of time, regardless of the volume of crossing pedestrians; (2) the operations or timings of adjacent signals are rarely coordinated, requiring motorists to potentially stop at each crosswalk they encounter, much like they do at a series of stop signs; and (3) pedestrians may cross during the “Don’t Walk” phase, particularly if they do not see approaching vehicles. An example of a signalized crosswalk is shown in Figure 7-4.
• Officers may be used to control crosswalks during busy periods, and with the crosswalks either uncontrolled or controlled by temporary stop signs during other hours. This schedule allows the officers to be used only when needed and can result in cost savings. The benefits of crosswalk enforcement by officers (whether TCOs or LEOs) are that they can (1) provide positive, visible enforcement of pedestrian and vehicular traffic; (2) require pedestrians to wait on the sidewalk, promoting platooning; (3) balance vehicular and pedestrian operations, responding to variations in traffic volumes; (4) stop vehicular traffic to provide pedestrians additional crossing time if needed (e.g., disabled or elderly passengers or passengers with small children or several large pieces of baggage); and (5) assist or direct motorists entering or exiting curbside spaces. As with the other options used to control pedestrian flows at a crosswalk, the use of officers may result in motorists being required to stop at multiple crosswalks.
• Costs are a key consideration when evaluating the use of signs, signals, or officers to control crosswalks:
  • Stop signs are the least expensive alternative, are readily available, and require little/no maintenance, other than replacement if damaged. However, information density is an important consideration when planning the use of additional static signage.
  • Activated signals require electrical power, a secure/vandal-free installation, regular inspection to ensure they are running well, and often a lengthy process in a larger airport for permitting.

• • Performance of maintenance and repairs requires specialized skills, which many airports outsource to private contractors or a municipal maintenance group to ensure a 24/7 response.
  • Officers, due to the ongoing expense of their wages and benefits, are by far the most expensive of the alternatives presented.

7.1.3 Measures to Support Curbside Enforcement: Warning Messages, Ticketing, and Towing

Enforcement officers have several tools and technologies to manage curbside traffic. These include

• Persuade motorists. Officers can remind drivers that the curbsides are to be used only for the active loading and unloading of passengers. For example, they can tell drivers “I need for you to move,” a phrase recommended by an airport promoting customer service. Additionally, airports can persuade motorists by having an automated announcement play regularly to remind drivers that curbsides are for active loading and unloading of passengers.
• Provide alternatives. Officers can direct motorists to a cell phone waiting area. To help motorists find the lots, some airports have handouts with driving directions that officers can give to drivers. Other airports have added symbols (e.g., a small white triangle) to the appropriate directional signs, enabling officers to instruct drivers to simply follow this symbol. The use of this symbol avoids the need to add additional text to directional signs that may already contain too much text. (Section 7.2.3 provides additional information about the use of cell phone lots.)
• Issue parking passes. At Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport, 1-hour “parking passes” can be provided to waiting drivers, especially those who appear to have arrived early. The passes allow drivers to park for up to 1 hour at no cost in an adjacent parking structure. To ensure the proper use of these passes, curbside staff only receive 10 passes at a time and must sign the passes upon issuing them. Airport staff report issuing about 10 passes on a typical weekday and as many as 50 to 60 passes on a busy holiday, such as Thanksgiving.
• Issue passes to accommodate people with disabilities. At Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport, airport staff managing curbside traffic operations can issue special permits to motorists transporting passengers with disabilities, as shown in Figure 7-5. These permits allow the driver to enter the terminal building to assist their passengers. Before issuing the permits, airport staff must inspect the vehicle, notify their supervisor, and sign the permit.
• Issue warning notices. At one airport, enforcement staff issue warning notices that look similar to tickets. The notice indicates that the motorist left the vehicle unattended, remained at the curb too long, or otherwise was in violation of airport regulations. While these warning notices have no legal authority, they are considered more customer friendly than a ticket and serve to warn motorists. Officers will issue a ticket if, upon their return, they see that the vehicle is still at the curb despite the motorist having received a warning notice.
• Issue tickets or citations. Airport enforcement staff may issue tickets or citations for non-moving violations to motorists who have violated airport regulations. These tickets are the equivalent of parking tickets and carry fines that vary based on the motorist’s offense. Tickets must be legally enforceable, supported by municipal codes or other laws, and posted signs.

Source: Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport

• Towing vehicles. Airports may tow or threaten to tow vehicles, that are stopped or standing at the curbside in violation of airport regulations. Some airports actively tow ticketed vehicles; others threaten to do so (especially if issuing tickets does not encourage the desired behavior by motorists), or simply have a tow truck parked at the curbside entrance (see Figure 7-6) at all times or only during peak periods to serve as a warning.

• Handheld ticket writing equipment. Enforcement officers can be furnished with hand-held devices (or devices worn from their belts) that automate and simplify ticket writing, as opposed to having a ticket book and having to look up applicable violation codes. Figure 7-7 depicts a portable ticket writer and printer.

7.1.4 Regulatory Sign Placement and Conformance

Effective curbside traffic management and enforcement requires that motorists be made aware that parking and standing are prohibited, and, further, that the signs prohibiting these actions be legally enforceable. Best practices for these signs include conformance with municipal or state vehicle codes. Normally, active loading and unloading at the curbside are permitted as long as the driver remains with the vehicle. Depending on the local codes, a sign that says

• “No parking” allows motorists to stop to load or unload passengers, but drivers may not leave a vehicle unattended while waiting for arriving passengers.
• “No standing” allows passengers to stop to load or unload passengers, but not wait for arriving passengers.
• “No stopping” means that motorists cannot stop in the area for any reason.

The signs typically contain text saying “No Standing or Parking” to ensure that they are enforceable. At some airports, curbside regulatory signs include supplementary text such as “No Unattended Vehicles,” “Do Not Leave Vehicle Unattended,” and “Tow-Away Zone,” as shown in Figure 7-8. The use of “Tow-Away Zone” is suggested only when tow trucks are available and used to support curbside enforcement.

These regulatory signs must be visible to motorists but mounted so as not to interfere with pedestrian circulation along the curbside sidewalk or those passengers boarding and alighting vehicles. FHWA’s Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices recommends that regulatory signs be placed 2 feet from the curbside face and that the bottom of the sign be a minimum of 5 feet above the sidewalk surface.

Source (top photos): Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport.

7.2 Traffic Demand Management Strategies

These strategies are intended to reduce traffic on airport curbside and other roadways by diverting motorists to alternate drop-off and pickup sites, encouraging the use of high-occupancy travel modes, or limiting commercial vehicle operations. Many of these strategies help to manage traffic demands and improve roadway capacities by promoting use of underutilized areas or by limiting the time vehicles are allowed to remain on the curbside. These strategies include

• 7.2.1. Moving commercial vehicle passenger boarding areas to an available remote location
• 7.2.2. Moving private vehicle pickup and/or drop-off areas to an available remote site
• 7.2.3. Encouraging the use of cell phone lots
• 7.2.4. Encouraging motorists dropping off or picking up passengers to use hourly parking
• 7.2.5. Encouraging use of long-duration parking areas rather than drop-off or pickup at the terminal curbs
• 7.2.6. Encouraging the use of transit or high-occupancy travel modes
• 7.2.7. Locating employee parking outside of the terminal area
• 7.2.8. Charging private motorists access fees
• 7.2.9. Charging commercial vehicle operators headway fees or higher fees for curbside pickup

7.2.1 Moving Commercial Vehicle Passenger Boarding Areas to an Available Remote Location

One method of controlling traffic demand at the curbsides is to divert some commercial vehicles away from the terminal curbs to a remote location, which may include

• Diverting TNCs (and/or other commercial vehicles) to a remote curb or remote lot.
• Diverting all commercial vehicles to ground transportation centers (or an alternative passenger drop-off or pickup area).
• Requiring that passengers use a shuttle or automated people mover (APM) to travel to remote boarding areas.

Diverting TNCs to a Remote Curb

Dwell times for TNC pickups can be longer than those for private vehicles due to the time needed for customers to find their driver, particularly during peak congested periods or at night.

This strategy locates TNC loading and/or unloading zones at a site(s) away from the terminal building curbsides but within walking distance of the terminal(s). The advantage of this strategy is that it diverts some vehicles away from the terminal curb roadway(s), reducing the overall demand for frequently congested areas. It can also improve the organization and allocation of commercial vehicle boarding areas, making it easier for customers to find the correct vehicle. While a remote location could provide for both passenger loading and unloading, only passenger boarding is provided at those airports with remote facilities; passenger unloading continues to occur at the terminal curbside. This is because it is simpler to identify, manage, and enforce regulations for TNCs picking up customers than doing so for TNCs dropping off customers. An example of an alternative TNC boarding area, LAX-it at Los Angeles International Airport, is shown in Figure 7-9.

Section 7.6 provides more detailed information on strategies to accommodate TNCs.

Diverting All Commercial Vehicles to Ground Transportation Centers

Another strategy is to divert all commercial vehicles to a ground transportation center located within walking distance of the terminal. This diverts traffic away from the terminal curb(s) and roadway. This strategy is particularly effective when there are numerous frequently or regularly scheduled commercial vehicles and limited terminal curb length. Delivery services and hotel/off-airport shuttle buses will require additional focus.

Requiring Use of a Shuttle or Automated People Mover to Travel to Boarding Areas

In congested terminal cores at large-hub airports, it may be desirable to develop a remote commercial vehicle boarding area (and potentially drop-off area) at a site that is not within walking distance of the terminal core. This requires that passengers be transported in shuttles or an APM between the remote boarding area and the terminal building(s). If the remote site provides for passenger drop-off, consideration should be given to providing remote baggage check-in facilities so passengers need not bring their checked baggage onto the shuttle or APM. (Currently, it is not practical to provide remote baggage claim facilities unless passengers are required to first claim and then re-check their baggage in the terminal.) Airports considering this approach should carefully consider both initial design and development costs as well as long-term operation and maintenance costs and the customer experience of those passengers required to use the shuttle/APM.

7.2.2 Moving Private Vehicle Pickup and/or Drop-Off Areas to an Available Remote Site

Curbside traffic demands can be controlled by diverting private vehicles from the terminal curb to a remote location. The remote pickup/drop-off area can be supplemental to the terminal curbside or replace the traditional terminal curb. An example of supplemental curbside is shown in Figure 7-10. Diversion of private vehicles to a remote location works well if it is an optional supplement to curbside drop-off and pickup, but this diversion may encounter resistance from customers if its use is mandatory.

This strategy requires consideration of unassisted walking distance and use of a shuttle or APM.

Walking Distance

Private vehicle pickup and drop-off areas can be located within walking distance of the terminal doorway or entrance. By locating a parking facility adjacent to the terminal building, the need for a supplemental shuttle, moving walkway, or APM can be avoided. Passenger pickup and drop-off zones within a parking facility can be offered by charging customers

• A fee, identical to or higher than those paid by parkers, for access to a premium, convenient pickup and drop-off location within the parking facility. This alternative produces additional airport revenues.
• No fee for access to (1) a nested zone within the parking facility having separate entrance(s) and exit(s) or (2) an entire parking facility (if customers are offered free parking for their first 30 minutes or other duration).

Using a Shuttle or Automated People Mover to the Remote Pickup/Drop-Off Areas

In congested terminal cores, it may be desirable to develop a remote private vehicle pickup/drop-off area that is within walking distance of the terminal(s), with passengers transported between the terminal and remote boarding area in shuttles or APMs. Airports considering this approach should carefully consider both initial design and development costs, long-term operation and maintenance costs, and the customer experience of those passengers required to use the shuttle/APM.

7.2.3 Encouraging the Use of Cell Phone Lots

Cell phone lots are free parking lots typically located along the approach to the terminal roadway or near the terminal, where motorists in private vehicles can wait for arriving passengers

to land and call for pickup. When adopted, they reduce the number of vehicles circulating on terminal loop roadways and reduce congestion along the arrivals curb. To encourage use of the cell phone lot, the cell phone lot should be planned considering the following:

• Convenient access (prior to the terminal core)
• Amenities
• Customer service and safety

Convenient Access

The cell phone lot should be convenient to use and easily identifiable, with clear access points. Ideally, a cell phone lot would be located on the airport’s primary entry roadway or just adjacent to it. The cell phone lot should also provide waiting motorists convenient access to information regarding airline arrival status and updates on roadway congestion that can be communicated to passengers before they arrive at the curbs. This can be done with a dynamic sign located in advance of the cell phone lot and terminal curbs, access to an airport’s website, or by providing the toll-free telephone numbers of individual airlines.

Amenities

Consider providing amenities for those utilizing cell phone lots. Amenities may include

• Large (multiple) flight identification displays
• Access to food trucks/coffee/restaurants
• Vending machines
• Wi-Fi
• Playgrounds
• Bathrooms
• Car wash
• Gas stations
• Electric vehicle charging

Amenities encourage drivers to use the cell phone lot and wait there, rather than at the terminal curb.

Customer Service and Safety

Ensuring customer service and safety is paramount to encouraging cell phone lot use. Airport staff should ensure that

• Proper security measures are provided, including security cameras and signs indicating the lot is regularly monitored by airport security vehicles. The airport should consider having a security vehicle present on the lot during peak times.
• Adequate lighting levels are provided throughout the cell phone lot to promote safety.
• All amenities are working properly and clean.
• Airport staff or contractors visit to see if waiting drivers need assistance. Through the airport’s parking operator, motorists can be offered assistance with changing flat tires and jump-starting cars with dead batteries. Motorists can also be provided with small amounts of gas.

7.2.4 Encouraging Motorists Dropping Off or Picking Up Passengers to Use Hourly Parking

There are multiple benefits resulting from increased use of hourly (or close-in) parking for passenger drop-off and pickup. The first is the additional revenue generated by customers. The second benefit is the reduced congestion at the terminal curb and on the terminal roadways. To encourage use of hourly parking airport managers should consider

• Parking rates or costs
• Distance to terminal
• Amenities
• Public communication and wayfinding

Parking Rates

To encourage use of hourly parking lots, airport staff should ensure that they are not prohibitively expensive. Lower prices, while generating lower revenues, may increase use of the parking facilities by motorists and, consequently, the effectiveness and efficiency of the roadway system. In some markets (i.e., those with significant curb congestion and/or low hourly lot usage), it may be appropriate to provide a grace period during which meeter/greeters would not be charged for using hourly parking or other facilities adjacent to the terminal building.

Distance to Terminal

Parking areas intended to attract motorists dropping off and picking up passengers should be located close to the terminal to maximize their desirability. It is suggested that such parking areas be within a convenient walking distance (e.g., less than 500 feet), offer weather protection or climate controls, and be accessible to those with disabilities. It may be ideal to have the parking area equidistant to the arrival and departure doors or, in some instances, to have separate lots catering to arrivals and departures.

Amenities

To encourage motorists dropping off or picking up passengers to use hourly parking facilities, it is suggested that airports consider providing amenities to attract customers including

• Free electric vehicle charging
• Valet parking
• Luggage cart pickup/drop-off
• Baggage check-in
• Wi-Fi
• Concessions in the form of food trucks and/or vending machines
• Designated smoking areas
• Playgrounds/family areas

7.2.5 Encouraging Use of Long-Duration Parking Areas Rather than Drop-Off or Pickup at the Terminal Curbs

There are multiple benefits resulting from the increased use of long-duration parking for passenger drop-off and pickup. The first is the additional revenue generated by customers. The second benefit is the reduced congestion at the terminal curb and on the terminal roadways. To encourage use of long-term parking consider

• Parking rates or costs
• Ease of parking compared to amount of traffic congestion and delays in the terminal core
• Connectivity to the terminal
• Public communication and wayfinding

Parking Rates

To encourage use of long-term parking facilities, airports should ensure that they are not prohibitively expensive. Lower prices, while generating lower revenues, may increase use of the long-term parking facility and, consequently, the effectiveness and efficiency of the roadway system. Adoption of a grace period for the long-term lot (such as 60 minutes) may encourage motorist use of long-term parking facilities and thereby reduce roadway traffic and congestion.

Ease of Parking

To encourage customer use of long-term parking facilities and to reduce roadway congestion, airport staff should ensure that customers can readily find available parking spaces and recognize the cost savings resulting from the use of long-duration facilities. Parking availability and rates should be communicated via airport websites, mobile applications, and signage displayed prior to the parking entrance. The facilities should utilize smart parking technologies to help drivers find parking spots efficiently. This may include use of the airport’s parking application and/or dynamic signage that indicates space availability by individual aisle and by space (i.e., single-space parking detection systems).

Connectivity to the Terminal

Customers can be encouraged to use long-term parking if they are provided quick and convenient access from the parking facility to the airport terminal. Where long-term parking is relatively close to the terminal, convenient access can be provided using elevated pedestrian bridges or tunnels incorporating moving walkways to reduce unassisted walking distances. Where the long-term parking facilities are located farther away from the terminal, convenient access can be provided using regular and frequent shuttle service (circulating within the parking facility) or APMs with stations integrated into the parking facility.

7.2.6 Encouraging the Use of Transit or High-Occupancy Travel Modes

Encouraging the use of transit and high-occupancy travel modes by passengers and employees working at the airport can be an effective way to manage traffic demand and reduce roadway congestion. Transit, including scheduled buses and trains, is capable of transporting many passengers and employees with minimal impact on roadways. There are many factors that impact the decision of passengers and employees to use transit or other high-occupancy travel modes including the availability of convenient transit at the non-airport trip end (i.e., near one’s place of residence or workplace), frequency of transit service, transit fares, and the familiarity of passengers and employees with transit service (and how to use it). However, airport staff can influence only a few of the factors affecting a passenger’s or employee’s decision to use transit or other high-occupancy travel mode. These factors include

• Walking distance/level changes
• Ease of wayfinding
• Marketing/advertising
• Remote parking

Walking Distance/Level Changes

The distances passengers—particularly passengers with several pieces of baggage or with large family groups—have to walk to/from a transit station or stop (at both ends of their trips) and the number of level changes they encounter influence their choice of access modes. Ideally, passengers would have a short walk from their transit station or stop to the airport security checkpoint and would not need to change levels. Passengers may be discouraged from using transit if they need to walk long distances, must change travel modes (i.e., use a bus or people mover to travel between the transit station and airport terminal), or if there is a fare for this intermediate/connecting mode.

Ease of Wayfinding

To ensure that transit is easily identifiable at the airport, references to transit should be displayed on wayfinding signs, ensuring passengers can see the available transit services as well as the areas/destinations served, schedule, and fares. Non-resident passengers may be unfamiliar with destinations served, how to purchase a fare card, or the frequency of departures from the airport terminal. Passengers may be discouraged from using transit if they encounter long waits (e.g., a bus departing every 60 minutes).

Marketing/Advertising

To promote the use of transit, airport staff may wish to consider advertising the availability of transit service to/from the airport at the airport as well as at transit stations/stops throughout the region. These advertisements should describe the available schedules, routes, and prices to access the airport. Such advertisements may be beneficial during peak holiday seasons or summer vacations when there are more cost-sensitive, leisure passengers traveling through the airport.

Remote Parking

Airport staff may wish to consider coordinating with local transit operators to allow passengers and employees to park at a discount rate to encourage the use of transit and reduce airport roadway congestion. Furthermore, the use of parking at transit centers allows these facilities to operate as off-airport parking lots, allowing passengers and employees to park off-airport and take transit to/from the airport.

Section 7.5.1. provides additional information regarding measures to encourage the use of transit or high-occupancy travel modes.

7.2.7 Locating Employee Parking Outside of the Terminal Area

By locating employee parking outside of the terminal area, airports can reduce traffic volumes and levels of congestion on the airport terminal area roads. Employees working for the airport, airlines, and other tenants may park away from the airport terminal and be transported in shuttles or APMs. In some cases, the airlines and other tenants lease space from an off-airport parking business and have their employees shuttled to/from the terminals.

Some airports require all persons working in the terminal area to park remotely except for airline station managers (or other selected senior staff) and employees of U.S. Customs and Border Protection or other federal agencies.

7.2.8 Charging Private Motorists Access Fees

The airport operator may charge motorists in private vehicles fees to access the airport or specific portions of the airport such as the terminal curb or alternative drop-off or pickup area. This strategy can reduce terminal area traffic and roadway congestion by encouraging passengers traveling in private vehicles to be dropped off or picked up at a remote location or take a shared ride or transit to the airport. This strategy is best implemented in concert with other strategies, such as remote parking and providing good transit and/or high-occupancy vehicle service at the airport.

7.2.9 Charging Commercial Vehicle Operators Headway Fees or Higher Fees for Curbside Pickup

The impacts of commercial ground transportation vehicles on terminal roadways can be managed by charging the operators of these vehicles higher fees for passenger drop-off or pickup in preferential areas and/or for use of the curbsides during peak periods of demand (or lower fees for the use of secondary drop-off or pickup areas). For example, TNCs, or other commercial ground transportation providers, entering premium curb space near the terminal building entrance during peak times could be charged a higher fee. Such strategies rely on the existence of preferential drop-off and pickup areas (i.e., those areas that customers and providers prefer) and a determination of peak demand times. The premium fee could be combined with a secondary passenger pickup site (or ground transportation center) to promote motorist use of a secondary location. In “Solving Airport Congestion Through Curb Pricing” (Medium, August 18, 2019, https://medium.com/p/62fb91e13751), Bakari Brock notes that in a pilot program at the San Francisco International Airport, a modest curb pricing fee for TNCs resulted in a 10% trip shift to less congested curbs. Increased fees suggested that this trip diversion could increase to 45%. While some TNC providers expressed support for such a program, it would require additional training and coordination to educate drivers and riders about the additional prices and the applicable times and areas.

Alternative strategies include (1) imposing demand management fees to limit the number of trips commercial ground transportation operators can make during a given period (e.g., per month) or (2) imposing interval or headway fees to limit the headways between successive vehicles that one provider operates. The use of interval or headway fees is intended to discourage “bump- and-run” operations whereby a commercial vehicle operator continuously has a courtesy vehicle parked at the terminal curbside.

7.3 Congestion Management Strategies

Airport terminal area roadways and curbsides are often space constrained (due to adjacent structures or facilities), limiting opportunities to use inexpensive solutions to address congestion. The following strategies are intended to improve operations and reduce congestion by using management tools to increase the available capacity of an existing roadway or curbside, thus avoiding or deferring large capital investments:

• 7.3.1. Consolidating, coordinating, or removing crosswalks
• 7.3.2. Changing pedestrian crosswalk controls
• 7.3.3. Raised crosswalk/speed platform
• 7.3.4. Revising the location or amount of curb space allocated to specific mode(s)
• 7.3.5. Implementing virtual taxicab queue/automated taxicab dispatching
• 7.3.6. Modifying/lengthening weaving area
• 7.3.7. Charging commercial vehicles for excessive number of trips or dwell times
• 7.3.8. Using space detectors supplemented by flashing beacons to encourage efficient use of curb space
• 7.3.9. Alternative curbside layouts including the use of sawtooth or angled spaces, pull-through spaces, or permitting double-parking
• 7.3.10. Revising roadway and curbside signage/wayfinding
• 7.3.11. Modifying placement or use of regulatory and warning signs
• 7.3.12. Using variable message signs to encourage/direct traffic to less busy curbsides

7.3.1 Consolidating, Coordinating, or Removing Crosswalks

On curbside roadways, traffic controls at adjacent crosswalks are rarely coordinated, often causing motorists to stop at multiple crosswalks and leading to traffic congestion and delays. In addition, each crosswalk occupies one to three curb spaces (or between two to four curb spaces when there is a raised crosswalk or speed platform) assuming a single loading curbside (i.e., loading on passenger’s side only).

While removal of crosswalks can reduce roadway congestion and improve the available length of effective curb space, crosswalk removal should be supported by effective wayfinding signage in the terminal to guide passengers to the remaining walkways and by fences or other barriers to discourage jaywalking. In the absence of barriers and enforcement, many passengers will take the most direct path between a terminal doorway and their destination on a center-island curbside or a parking facility on the opposite side of the roadway.

Analyses of pedestrian circulation paths and volumes are often performed to determine which crosswalks to remove. These analyses may consider the

• Volume of passengers inconvenienced by a crosswalk’s removal. The volume of pedestrians using each crosswalk can be determined through surveys or estimated based on the land use and airline activity on either side of the crosswalk, that is, the number of pedestrian trips generated by (1) a parking structure, parking lot, center-island curbside, or other land use on the non-terminal side and (2) the proportion of airline passengers served by the airline(s) located at or near the terminal end of the crosswalk.
• Distances between adjacent crosswalks and the increase, if any, in walking distances resulting from a crosswalk’s removal.
• Volume of curbside roadway traffic and the proportion of time that the crosswalk is occupied and motorists must stop while waiting for pedestrians to cross the road.

Construction of an elevated walkway above a curbside roadway or tunnel beneath the roadway allows for the removal of at-grade crosswalks. However, adding a grade-separated crossing to an existing terminal building is very expensive due to the costs of the enclosed, weather-protected bridge structure needed to span the roadway, or the costs of tunneling beneath an existing roadway, as well as the vertical circulation elements needed at both ends of the crossing (i.e., escalators plus elevators to accommodate passengers with wheeled baggage and disabilities). At airports having both at-grade crossings and grade-separated crossings, many pedestrians prefer to use the at-grade crossing rather than change building levels unless they are prevented from doing so (e.g., no visible doors leading into or out of the parking structure opposite the terminal).

7.3.2 Changing Pedestrian Crosswalk Controls

(Section 7.3.2 repeats much of the discussion in Section 7.1.2 because the strategy “control of crosswalks—officers versus signals” can be considered both an enforcement strategy and a congestion mitigation strategy.)

Vehicular traffic at pedestrian crosswalks located on curbside (or other) roadways can be uncontrolled or controlled using stop signs, pedestrian-actuated signals, or by officers. Key aspects of these options are described in the following:

• Uncontrolled crosswalks are often used when vehicular and pedestrian traffic volumes are low (i.e., there are frequent gaps in vehicular traffic allowing pedestrians to cross), the crosswalk and pedestrians in the crosswalk can be easily seen by drivers, and in communities where motorists commonly stop for crossing pedestrians. (The visibility of pedestrians using crosswalks can be enhanced and traffic speeds reduced through the use of raised crosswalks—see Section 7.3.3).
• Stop signs may be used to control crosswalks, with the signs often placed in the middle of crosswalks to improve their visibility. The benefit of stop signs is that they enhance pedestrian safety by providing positive traffic controls that are easily recognized. One disadvantage of stop signs is that they require every motorist to come to a full stop, whether or not there is a pedestrian in the crosswalk, thus delaying traffic and adding to congestion. Stop signs do not support the rapid movement of vehicles through the intersection. Also, stop signs are less effective in high-congestion environments where drivers are already distracted.
• Pedestrian-actuated crosswalk signals (Walk/Don’t Walk) at airports are normally actuated by waiting pedestrians through the use of push buttons, thermal imaging devices, or motion detectors. At airports, pedestrian-actuated signals are normally used rather than signals operated on fixed time cycles. The primary benefits of pedestrian-actuated signals (compared to stop signs) are that motorists encounter fewer delays since (1) they only need to stop when there are waiting pedestrians, and (2) there are larger gaps between crossing pedestrians as the signals promote pedestrian platooning (as opposed to motorists having to stop due to the random and infrequent arrival of pedestrians). Disadvantages of crosswalk signals are (1) normally, vehicular traffic is stopped for a fixed length of time, regardless of the volume of crossing pedestrians, and (2) the operations or timings of adjacent signals are rarely coordinated, requiring motorists to potentially stop at each crosswalk they encounter, much like they do at a series of stop signs.
• Officers may be used to control crosswalks during busy periods, and with the crosswalks either uncontrolled or controlled by temporary stop signs during other hours. This schedule allows the officers to be used only when needed and can result in cost savings. The benefits of crosswalk enforcement by officers (whether TCOs or LEOs) are that they can (1) provide positive, visible enforcement of pedestrian and vehicular traffic; (2) require pedestrians to wait on the sidewalk, promoting platooning; (3) balance vehicular and pedestrian operations, responding to variations in traffic volumes; and (4) stop vehicular traffic to provide pedestrians additional crossing time if needed (e.g., disabled or elderly passengers, or passengers with small children or several large pieces of baggage). As with the other options used to control pedestrian flows at a crosswalk, the use of officers may result in motorists being required to stop at multiple crosswalks.

Costs are a key consideration when evaluating the use of signs, signals, or officers to control crosswalks:

• Stop signs are the least expensive alternative, are readily available, and require little/no maintenance, other than replacement if damaged. However, information density is an important consideration when planning the use of additional static signage such as stop signs.
• Activated signals require electrical power, a secure/vandal-free installation, and regular inspection to ensure they are operating properly, and may require a lengthy permitting process in larger airports or some jurisdictions. Performance of maintenance and repairs requires specialized skills, which many airports outsource to private contractors or municipal maintenance agencies to ensure a 24/7 response.
• Officers, due to the ongoing expense of their wages and benefits, are by far the most expensive of the alternatives presented.

7.3.3 Raised Crosswalk/Speed Platform

Raised crosswalks, also known as speed platforms, are traffic-calming devices that consist of a raised roadway section spanning the entire roadway width with sloping ramps for motorists approaching and leaving the raised section. The platform or crosswalk height is flush with the height of the adjacent sidewalks. The platform widths are designed so that the front and rear wheels of a vehicle are on top of the table at the same time, causing motorists to slow down.

The benefits of raised crosswalks include improved pedestrian safety because

• Traffic speeds are reduced by motorists slowing down at the crosswalk.
• Pedestrians in the crosswalk are more visible to drivers.
• Pedestrians in the crosswalk have an elevated view of approaching traffic.

In addition, raised crosswalks allow disabled pedestrians and those with wheeled baggage to avoid stepping down and up or navigating sloping ramps. Raised crosswalks address ADA requirements and assist passengers with wheeled baggage, eliminating the need for sloping ramps at either end of a crosswalk (although detectable warnings on both ends of a raised crosswalk are recommended).

The primary disadvantages of raised crosswalks are that they

• Remove more usable curb space than a standard crosswalk due to the sloping approach and departure ramps, which are typically about 6 to 10 feet in length, depending on the sidewalk height.
• Are potentially challenging to plow in areas with frequent snowfall.
• Require emergency vehicles to reduce speeds (but less than a speed bump).

An example of a raised crosswalk is portrayed in Figure 7-11.

7.3.4 Revising the Location or Amount of Curb Space Allocated to Specific Mode(s)

Curbside traffic congestion can be managed and mitigated by modifying the location and/or amount of curb space assigned to each travel mode or transportation service. It is suggested that the allocation of curb space be reviewed regularly and adjusted as needed to reflect changes in traffic volumes, operations, and mix of vehicles. For example, a decline in the number of customers seeking on-demand taxicabs may warrant reducing the amount of curb space provided for waiting taxicabs and reallocating that space to a mode that has gained traffic over that time such as TNCs or rental car shuttles.

When allocating curb space, particularly the location and amount of space reserved for vehicles picking up passengers, airport managers consider the amount of curb space required by each travel mode or transportation service, the total amount of space required by all modes, and the total effective curb space available. They then prioritize the available space and assign space to each travel mode considering factors such as

• Passenger needs. The location of spaces reserved for passengers with disabilities is determined both by codes and by the volume of airport passengers having special needs. Airports serving many senior citizens may wish to provide more space than required by code.
• Customer expectations. Customers expect to find certain transportation services, such as taxicabs, near baggage claim areas. Customers who have reserved pre-arranged or luxury limousines expect to easily find their waiting vehicles and drivers.
• Airport policies. Some airports have a “transit first” policy and encourage customers to use public transit or other high-occupancy vehicles. At these airports, scheduled buses may be assigned the most convenient drop-off and pickup areas, space that is more convenient than the space assigned to private vehicles.
• Airport revenues. Airport management often assign higher-priority curb space (i.e., more convenient space) to transportation services from which the airport receives significant revenues. For example, on-airport parking and rental car shuttles may be assigned more convenient and visible curb space than transportation service operators that contribute less airport revenue.
• Competition among operators. For ground transportation providers that compete with one another (or perceive that they compete), airport management considers the proximity and relative convenience of the curb space assigned. For example, airport staff may attempt to provide comparable space to TNCs and taxicabs to avoid requiring customers of one service to walk

• past the pickup zone assigned to a competitor. Conversely, on-airport-parking shuttles may be assigned more convenient curb space than the shuttles operated by off-airport-parking businesses.
• Operational needs. Curb space allocations must allow adequate maneuvering space to accommodate the vehicles commonly used by the operators of each transportation service. For example, over-the-road motorcoaches commonly used by charter or tour bus operators require about 60 linear feet to enter and exit a parallel curbside area. Thus, the space allocated to this mode must be at least 60 feet in length, and if space for multiple vehicles is provided, the allocated space should be in increments of about 60 feet.

The QATAR model described in this Guide can be used to test alternative curb space allocations and compare how they impact curbside roadway operations and service levels.

7.3.5 Implementing Virtual Taxicab Queue/Automated Taxicab Dispatching

Curbside congestion can be reduced by right-sizing the amount of curb space allocated to taxicabs and other on-demand transportation services. The use of automated dispatching systems allows airports to reduce the space allocated to these services while maintaining desired customer service levels. The following paragraphs address the use of virtual queues and automated dispatching by airports to manage taxicab operations. Airports do not manage the dispatching of TNCs as each TNC controls its own virtual queue and automated dispatching system.

Automated taxicab dispatching and virtual queues replace traditional airport taxicab dispatching and starting. With traditional taxicab operations, drivers wait in hold lots (or staging areas) until airport staff or their representatives (e.g., a taxicab dispatcher) instruct the drivers to proceed to a passenger pickup zone, where the drivers wait in a queue until other airport staff (e.g., taxicab starters) assign them a waiting customer. Taxicab drivers frequently encounter long waits for airport customers, requiring airports to provide and maintain large hold lots to accommodate waiting taxicabs and provide restrooms, lounges, and other amenities desired by waiting drivers.

With a virtual queue, drivers using a smartphone can join a virtual queue of waiting taxicabs until they reach the head of the virtual queue. Depending on the size of the airport and the volume of taxicab activity, upon reaching the head of the virtual queue, drivers are instructed to proceed to

• A small taxicab hold lot (which can be reduced in size if it needs to accommodate fewer vehicles and provide fewer amenities because drivers are only in the lot briefly).

• A taxicab stack, which is a short queue located away from the curbside but near the pickup area that allows drivers to respond to passenger requests more quickly than if drivers were traveling from a more distant hold lot. Drivers are then instructed to proceed from the stack to the pickup area when needed.
• The passenger pickup area.

A virtual queue supplements, but does not replace, the taxicab dispatcher and starter. In contrast, an automated dispatch system is capable of replacing both the dispatcher and starter by (1) monitoring the number of taxicabs waiting at each passenger pickup area, and (2) as a taxicab exits the pickup area notifying the next driver waiting in the virtual queue to proceed directly to the passenger pickup area(s) or taxicab stack. The number of taxicabs waiting at each passenger pickup area can be adjusted to respond to anticipated or actual passenger demands.

For taxicab drivers, the benefits of a virtual queue are that it allows them, using a smartphone, to (1) determine the number of taxicabs waiting for airport passengers ahead of them and estimate their wait time, (2) make an informed decision about when to work and join the queue if they choose to, (3) monitor their place in the queue, and (4) proceed to the airport when they approach the head of the queue.

For airport management, one benefit of a virtual queue is that it allows the taxicab hold lot to be drastically reduced in size or to be removed or used for other purposes. The additional benefits of an automated dispatch system are that it allows management to (1) minimize the curb space allocated for taxicab pickups while ensuring there are sufficient waiting taxis to accommodate arriving passengers; (2) reduce labor costs; and (3) better control short trips, pre-arranged pickups, and other non-standard fares.

Virtual queues and automated taxicab dispatch systems require the acquisition of a ground transportation management system (GTMS). Automated dispatch systems require vehicle detectors (e.g., gate arms, induction loops, Bluetooth, radio-frequency identification, or cameras) to be installed at the passenger boarding area to monitor the arrival and departure of authorized vehicles. Generally, airports either purchase off-the-shelf automated dispatch systems (which can be an add-on feature of an existing GTMS) or custom-built systems. Both require the preparation of requests for qualifications (RFQs) or requests for proposals (RFPs). Prior to issuing the RFQ or RFP, it is recommended that airport management

• Review existing taxicab regulations and policies and revise them as appropriate.
• Confirm desired dispatching policies such as response times.
• Establish the desired maximum and minimum number of waiting taxicabs at each passenger boarding area.
• Determine the availability of a site for a taxicab stack in proximity to the passenger boarding area.

Examples of automated dispatch displays are shown in Figure 7-12.

Source: Parkway Airport Services, November 2021

7.3.6 Modifying/Lengthening Weaving Area

As described in prior chapters, weaving occurs when traffic on two roads traveling in the same direction crosses, requiring vehicles to merge and diverge in close proximity in order to execute lane changes. (Chapter 4 describes low-speed weaving operations on airport roadways and the use of QATAR to analyze these operations.) Congestion and delays occur when the volume of weaving traffic exceeds the capacity of the weaving segment, causing queues to form on the approach lanes.

The key factors determining the capacity of a weaving segment include the volume and speed of the weaving traffic, the number of lane changes needed, and the length of the weaving segment. Reducing roadway congestion in a weaving segment requires modifying one or more of these factors by

• Directing traffic to an alternate route. It may be possible to require motorists to follow an alternative but longer path. For example, at San Francisco International Airport, an unsatisfactory weaving operation was resolved by closing a roadway and requiring motorists exiting the domestic terminal curbsides to take a longer path to travel to the parking structure. When traffic queues begin to form at Los Angeles International Airport, airport staff can use a temporary gate to close a weaving segment exit, eliminating congestion but causing motorists to travel further. Denver and Portland both have closed return-to-terminal routes to push traffic further out. (See Figure 7-13.)
• Reducing traffic speeds. Traffic speeds in the weaving area may be reduced using traditional methods such as the posting and enforcing of regulatory signs.
• Reducing the number of required lane changes. The number of lanes motorists must cross to complete a weave can be reduced by
  • Merging traffic lanes before vehicles enter a roadway weaving segment using pavement markings, traffic delineators, signage, or a combination of these tools, assuming that the reduced number of entrance lanes provides adequate capacity.

• • Directing motorists to the appropriate lane prior to their entering a weaving segment using directional signs and/or pavement markings and by separating weaving traffic from traffic that is not changing lanes.
• Increasing the length of a weaving segment. A weaving segment’s length may be increased slightly by changing the pavement markings at the entrance and exit of the segment or minor changes (including use of the roadway shoulders) to the entrance and exit roadways. However, changes to weaving segments that involve roadway construction or the introduction of grade-separation (to eliminate a weave entirely) are not included in the management strategies presented in this Guide due to the large capital investments required.

7.3.7 Charging Commercial Vehicles for Excessive Number of Trips or Dwell Times

At some airports, operators of commercial ground transportation vehicles are charged fees (or fines), often referred to as demand management fees, in order to reduce roadway and curbside congestion. These fees are intended to

• Reduce traffic congestion on airport roadways.
• Encourage efficient use of passenger boarding areas.
• Improve air quality by reducing vehicle-generated emissions.
• Discourage operators from making non-essential trips.

Non-essential trips include those made by the operators of courtesy vehicles seeking to advertise or market their services by (1) circulating repeatedly past the terminal building curbsides or (2) ensuring that one of their courtesy vehicles is stopped at the curbside at all times (i.e., operating in a “bump-and-run” manner so that a vehicle remains at the curb until a subsequent vehicle arrives).

To reduce traffic congestion, encourage efficient use of the passenger pickup areas, and achieve other goals, airport managers

• Fine ground transportation operators whose vehicles remain at the passenger pickup area in excess of an established maximum dwell time (i.e., charge dwell time fees). The maximum dwell times normally vary based on vehicle size and type of service, with charter buses allowed to dwell for 15 to 20 minutes, while courtesy vehicles are allowed to dwell for 5 minutes or less. Typically, the amount of the fine is three to five times the per-trip fee such vehicles are required to pay. Taxicabs queued while waiting for arriving customers are not charged dwell time fees.

• Place a cap on the number of courtesy vehicle trips made by each courtesy vehicle operator. For example, each hotel/motel may be limited to 1,500 courtesy vehicle trips per month and charged a fee for each additional or excess vehicle trip.
• Restrict the minimum time interval between the arrival of courtesy vehicles serving a business (e.g., there must be 15 minutes or more between successive courtesy vehicles operated by the same company) or limit the operator to four trips per hour. These fees are referred to as interval fees and are intended to discourage bump-and-run operations.

These restrictions require the use of GTMSs to monitor (1) the length of time vehicles remain at the boarding areas, (2) the volume of courtesy vehicle trips, (3) the time between successive courtesy vehicles, and (4) provide a basis for calculating fines or penalties. Monitoring dwell times requires vehicle detectors or antennae to be installed at the entrance and exit of the passenger boarding area. Only a single vehicle detector or antennae is required to monitor the number of monthly vehicle trips or the time interval between vehicles.

At some airports, rental car companies and other courtesy vehicle operators ignore these management fees in order to maintain corporate-mandated customer service levels. These companies consider the cost of dwell time fees and/or interval fees part of the “normal cost of doing business” at the airport and pay the associated fees. At these airports, dwell time and interval fees have proven to be less effective in achieving management’s objectives.

7.3.8 Using Space Detectors Supplemented by Flashing Beacons to Encourage Efficient Use of Curb Space

Curbside congestion can hypothetically be reduced by implementing a space management system (using overhead detectors or cameras) similar to those utilized in “smart” parking garages. With this strategy, the signal or sign would note which spaces on the curb are available or are occupied to vehicles some distance away from approaching vehicles. Similar systems have been tested in urban areas (e.g., SFpark)

Use of space detectors could pose challenging if (1) the curbside boarding spaces are not clearly delineated (or striped) causing the signals not to detect stopped vehicles, and/or (2) use of the spaces is not actively enforced. An additional caveat to this system is the lack of control over the driver’s instinctive behaviors, such as double- and triple-parking or clustering at the perceived “closest” door for the exiting or arriving passenger.

7.3.9 Alternative Curbside Layouts Including the Use of Sawtooth or Angled Spaces, Pull-Through Spaces, or Permitting Double-Parking

Congestion on a linear (vehicles parked nose-to-tail) curbside roadway, particularly at pickup curbsides, can be reduced by using alternative curbside configurations such as angled or sawtooth spaces (either pull-through or back-out) or by allowing double-parking. These configurations can increase curb capacity, reduce passenger walking distances, and support enforcement.

Angled Spaces

Angled curbside spaces can (1) improve vehicle efficiency (i.e., the number of vehicles accommodated per square foot) compared with a linear curbside having three or more parallel lanes and (2) reduce passenger walking distances because more vehicles can be accommodated in the same curbside length. Airport curbsides can be configured using angled pull-through spaces or angled back-out spaces. An example configuration for angled pull-through spaces is shown in Figure 7-15.

To accommodate angled pull-through spaces, the curbside roadway needs to be at least 60 feet in width (the equivalent of about five parallel lanes). This provides sufficient width for the pull-through spaces plus at least one through lane for vehicles entering the spaces and a second through lane for vehicles exiting the spaces. Angled back-out spaces require approximately the same width because at least two through lanes are needed behind the spaces to allow motorists to back out safely. An example configuration of angled back-out spaces is shown in Figure 7-16.

There are challenges associated with pull-through and back-out spaces. The challenges with pull-through spaces include (1) the need for exiting vehicles to cross the paths of passengers walking between stopped vehicles and the terminal and (2) the tendency of motorists who are waiting for an empty space to double-park and possibly block through traffic. When double-parking is allowed to occur, vehicle queues can quickly form if other motorists cannot bypass the stopped vehicles. The challenge with back-out spaces is that drivers must back out into an active roadway while their ability to see oncoming traffic is constrained (i.e., they must back out into a blind spot), compromising roadway safety. Thus, both angled pull-through and back-out spaces

are more commonly found at passenger drop-off and pickup areas used exclusively by commercial ground transportation vehicles (e.g., a ground transportation center) or in a repurposed parking area.

Sawtooth Spaces

Sawtooth spaces allow buses and other large vehicles to park immediately adjacent to a curbside allowing passengers to step directly to/from the parked vehicle when boarding and alighting. A sawtooth space is shorter than the length of the space these vehicles require when parking along a traditional linear curbside. The disadvantages of sawtooth spaces are (1) the lack of flexibility—a space accommodates a single vehicle regardless of the vehicle’s size whereas smaller vehicles require less linear curbside; and (2) like angled spaces, the delays to traffic in through lanes if vehicles waiting to enter a sawtooth space are allowed to double-park.

Designated Double-Wide Lanes

A double-wide lane is a curbside lane that is 20 to 24 feet wide (the equivalent of two travel lanes) separated by distinct pavement marking or striping from the adjacent through lanes. Motorists are allowed to double-park on the terminal side of a pavement marking but only moving traffic is allowed in the through lanes. Double-wide lanes facilitate enforcement by allowing double-parking in the designated area while discouraging motorists from blocking through lanes. A concern with double-wide lanes is that motorists loading or unloading adjacent to the curbside or inner lane can be “trapped” by vehicles stopped in the outer lane. As a result, motorists tend to only stop in the outer lane, leaving the inner curbside lane under-utilized.

7.3.10 Revising Roadway and Curbside Signage/Wayfinding

Curbside congestion can be improved by revising roadway and curbside signage and wayfinding messages both by revising overhead signs and those mounted adjacent to roadways (i.e., column-mounted signs and graphics). Additionally, roadway signage that adds clarity via colors and clear messaging to better assist with the allocation of curbs and available spaces will

benefit drivers who are already distracted by surrounding congestion. Roadway signage is most effective if the message starts before the vehicle enters the decision-making zone and is part of and consistent with the airport’s signage and wayfinding master plan. Too many signs can lead to visual clutter, distract motorists, and make it challenging to find key signs. For this reason, advertisement or promotional banners are discouraged on airport roadways as such messaging can distract from directional and regulatory messages.

ACRP Report 52: Wayfinding and Signing Guidelines for Airport Terminals and Landside provides guidelines on the use, location, and design of signs including technologies, fonts, colors, and sizes. As noted in this resource, signs can be mounted on free-standing poles, overhead structures, or structural columns, or be displayed using column wraps or pavement markings.

7.3.11 Modifying Placement or Use of Regulatory and Warning Signs

Curbside congestion can be reduced by airport staff by modifying the placement and/or use of regulatory and warning signs, but only if the message is supported by active and consistent enforcement. If private vehicle use of portions of the curbside is restricted, adjacent signage clearly identifying curbside availability and access should be provided.

7.3.12 Using Variable Message Signs to Encourage/Direct Traffic to Less Busy Curbsides

Variable message signs can be used to balance demand among available curbside areas by directing arriving motorists to less busy curbside levels (if the peak periods of demand for these curbsides do not coincide). Implementation requires placing variable message signs (using either permanently mounted or temporary trailer-mounted signs) on the approach roadways to inform entering motorists about the availability of alternative drop-off or pickup areas. An example of this is shown in Figure 7-19.

Web-based information about parking availability can be used to supplement variable message roadway signs and encourage motorists to use adjacent parking structures or surface lots.

Source: Sacramento International Airport.

7.4 Customer Service Strategies

It is important for an airport to provide good customer service because a customer’s first and last experiences at the airport are usually the most memorable. The strategies discussed in this section are focused on reducing roadway and curbside congestion and encouraging the use of transit and high-occupancy vehicles by improving customer experience. The strategies are

• 7.4.1. Providing convenient, enclosed, passenger waiting areas
• 7.4.2. Informing waiting passengers of bus and shuttle arrival times
• 7.4.3. Presenting transit schedules, fares, and route information to passengers
• 7.4.4. Providing passenger service associates at curbsides
• 7.4.5. Enhancing safety and convenience for pedestrians crossing roadways and waiting for transportation

7.4.1 Providing Convenient, Enclosed, Passenger Waiting Areas

The customer experience of passengers waiting to be picked up can be enhanced by providing climate-controlled waiting areas that include seating, heating, and other amenities. These shelters can be located both at terminal curbsides and at remote/consolidated facilities. These shelters protect

passengers from the elements while providing centralized locations that increase the efficiency of the curb.

Key considerations related to implementing passenger waiting enclosures include

• Location
• Amenities
• Maintenance

Location

The shelters should be near pickup locations—particularly on uncovered roadways—serving regularly scheduled buses, courtesy vehicles, and on-demand vehicles that are not standing at the curbsides such as taxicabs or TNCs. (Generally, shelters are not required at taxicab stands as normally there is a queue of waiting taxicabs, eliminating the need for passengers to wait for arriving vehicles.) Passengers waiting in the shelter should be able to clearly see approaching vehicles and other portions of the curbside. Depending on the curb length and number of areas allocated to buses, courtesy vehicles, and TNCs, one shelter positioned at a central location or several evenly spaced locations may be needed to minimize walking distances and provide sightlines. Generally, shelters should be located at least 3 feet back from the curb face, with a minimum setback of 10 feet from any crosswalks. Shelter locations should be evaluated for their impact on pedestrian traffic in the surrounding area.

Amenities

Shelters should provide weather protection against wind, snow, and blowing rain, with heating provided in some climates. Shelter sizes vary based on anticipated peak-period occupancy (i.e., occupancy depends on the estimated number of peak-period passengers waiting concurrently at each shelter for buses, courtesy vehicles, and TNCs) and the local climate. Shelters in more extreme climates need to provide greater capacity than those in more temperate climates due to the proportion of passengers expected to wait inside the structures. Additional guidelines may be available from local transit codes. Climate-controlled waiting areas should contain seating, with additional amenities considered to improve customer experience, including

• Heating elements in colder environments
• Proper ventilation in warm environments and protection from the sun
• Lighting levels meeting/exceeding local standards to ensure passenger safety and comfort
• Courtesy phones to connect with the service provider and airport security
• Dynamic signs/information stations with key contact and pricing information
• Variable message boards displaying the estimated arrival time of the next airport-operated parking shuttle(s) or public transit bus
• Seating bench
• Vending machines
• Charging stations
• Overhangs, leaning rails, and additional seating on the outside of shelters to meet peak demand

Maintenance

Shelters should be properly maintained to maintain desired levels of customer experience. Maintenance includes regular cleanings that avoid peak periods of use and upkeep to address general wear and tear on a monthly or annual basis. (Every customer service enhancement must be kept in working order and properly maintained or the amenity may negatively impact customer experience.) Any equipment associated with safety and security must be kept in working order as non-working equipment reflects a significant liability to the airport.

7.4.2 Informing Waiting Passengers of Bus and Shuttle Arrival Times

It is helpful to display the expected arrival times of buses and airport shuttles to passengers awaiting these vehicles. Doing so improves the customer experience and reduces their anxieties. Key considerations related to informing waiting passengers include

• Information/signage
• Customer service kiosks
• Accuracy of information

Source: Rob Stapleton, Jr. / Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport

Source: https://www.flystl.com/, screen capture: May 16, 2022.

Information/Signage

At key locations on the curb, message signs can be installed displaying regularly scheduled route and shuttle information. These can be standard static informational signs or dynamic displays, showing the arrival time of the next bus (or shuttle) and route information/destinations served. Some airports have found it beneficial to provide a web application, or “app,” that includes detailed information about the ground access system, including information on parking occupancy and schedules for regular ground access services, such as scheduled buses, courtesy shuttles, and public transit. St. Louis Lambert International Airport shows current parking availability, shown in Figure 7-22.

These applications can also display the same real-time data as the dynamic signage along with live global positioning system (GPS) tracking on a map showing the location of shuttles, as shown in Figure 7-23.

Customer Service Kiosks

Staffed or automated customer service kiosks, located at the curbside or within the baggage claim areas, can be used to provide passengers with information such as schedules, fares, and destinations served by transit services and scheduled buses. Staff at these kiosks can also provide other information about the airport and its airlines, provide directions, and respond to questions from passengers and visitors. Indeed, most of the questions that the staff at ground transportation desks receive do not pertain to the airport’s ground transportation services.

Accuracy of Information

It is important to maintain up-to-date information on transit and scheduled bus schedules and fares, particularly at airports with significant seasonal traffic and where transit schedules and services vary accordingly. This applies to both static and dynamic information sources, but dynamic displays are more easily updated. Airport staff should regularly contact transit authorities, scheduled bus operators, and other providers to ensure that all information is current. Information should be automated where possible to remove the opportunity for human error.

7.4.3 Presenting Transit Schedules, Fares, and Route Information to Passengers

It is helpful to provide arriving passengers with information describing the departure times/schedules, fares, routes, and destinations served by public transit and scheduled buses at the airport.

Source: slcairport.ridesystems.net, screen capture: May 16, 2022.

This information is particularly useful to non-resident passengers not familiar with the community. Other helpful information may include instructions on how to purchase a ticket/fare card.

Key considerations related to informing arriving passengers include:

• Signage
• Customer service kiosks
• Accuracy of information

Signage

At key locations on the curb, airports should provide displays containing fare and schedule information for scheduled routes. These can be standard signs or dynamic signs, showing the next arrival time and route. Some airports may find it beneficial to develop and provide a web application that includes detailed information on their ground access system, including information on schedules and fares for regular ground access services such as scheduled buses and rail services and regional shuttles.

Customer Service Kiosks

Staffed or automated customer service kiosks placed in the baggage claim, curbside, or other areas can assist passengers by providing a variety of information, including regularly scheduled service information. Staffed or automated kiosks have higher costs than static displays, but they are more flexible and can provide a greater amount of information.

Current Information

Efforts should be made to maintain current information on schedules, fares, and routes/destinations, particularly at airports with significant seasonal traffic. Airports should regularly engage with operators of privately operated, scheduled bus service and public transit agencies to ensure that all information is current. Information displays should be automated where possible to remove the opportunity for human error.

7.4.4 Providing Passenger Service Associates at Curbsides

Prioritizing customer service by assigning airport representatives, such as guest service ambassadors, to the curbsides can increase the level of customer satisfaction. Staff may be airport staff, volunteers, or contracted. These representatives can (1) assist passengers with loading and unloading at the curb to gain efficiencies, (2) provide directions to support nearby signage or direct passengers to information displays, and (3) assist passengers with special needs or mobility challenges. There are a number of considerations that airports need to address when establishing guest services or ambassadors:

• Tasks for airport representatives
• Training
• Liability
• Cost

Tasks for Airport Representatives

Airport representatives may perform many customer service tasks, including

• Providing directions, locations of boarding areas for specific transportation services, and airline and transit schedule information.
• Monitoring areas for safety and security concerns (i.e., sharing concerns with enforcement officers).
• Assisting passengers with special needs or mobility challenges including helping with boarding/alighting, handling baggage and personal items, and sharing directions.
• Assisting with crowd control.
• Assisting in emergencies.

Training

As with all customer service positions, particular care should be taken to ensure airport representatives have sufficient and recurrent training. Training should include ADA assistance, security

and safety standards, impacts of construction, seasonal changes impacting travelers, and participation in emergency drills (performing crowd control and working with enforcement officers and emergency services). Standard operating procedures should be documented by the airport and should be shared with tenants such as airlines and rental car agencies to ensure consistency and the highest level of customer service.

Liability

Consideration should be given to the liabilities associated with the tasks assigned to the airport representatives. Careful consideration should be given to the level of assistance being provided to disabled patrons and whether employees of the airport can physically touch a passenger’s belongings.

Cost

The costs of providing guest services/airport representatives vary based on the number of employees needed. Some airports have outsourced this service by retaining a third-party contractor to provide and manage their curbside customer service representatives.

7.4.5 Enhancing Safety and Convenience for Pedestrians Crossing Roadways and Waiting for Transportation

Airports with multiple curbs or with parking facilities within walking distance may have pedestrian crossings on roadways. Enhancements start with effective wayfinding inside the airport and on the curbs. Proper crossings lead to more effective curbside roadways and increased passenger satisfaction, convenience, and safety. Some areas to consider are the following:

• Lighting
• Traffic controls
• Walkway widths
• Level changes and slopes

Lighting

As a general rule, pedestrian crossings and the areas leading up to them should be well lit and provide motorists with clear views of pedestrians and pedestrians with clear views of approaching vehicles. Roadways being crossed should also be well lit, allowing pedestrians ample time to assess traffic situations.

Traffic Controls

Various types of traffic controls are available to assist in pedestrian crossings. These include signage, signaling, and staffed crossings. More information on each of these types of controls and their effect on congestion are available in Section 7.3.2. Identifying the appropriate type of control is essential to balancing pedestrian and curb roadway levels of service, ensuring safe and efficient use.

Walkway Widths

Pedestrian crossings should be appropriately sized, generally in the range of 8 to 12 feet wide, to ensure crossings are safe and predictable. Crossings should be wide enough to accommodate

peak pedestrian traffic levels without unreasonable vehicle stoppage time, but not so wide that drivers have difficulty identifying pedestrians entering the walkway.

Level Changes and Slopes

Grade-separated pedestrian crossings can improve customer experience and safety by separating pedestrians from the roadway. While grade-separated crossings allow for continuous flows of traffic and pedestrians without the risk of interaction, they are costly to construct and may not be appropriate for curbs of all passenger activity levels or terminal building configurations. Raised crosswalks/speed platforms are described in Section 7.3.3.

7.5 Sustainability Strategies

Sustainability strategies strive to reduce or eliminate carbon emissions generated by landside traffic. These strategies include

• 7.5.1. Encouraging the use of transit or high-occupancy travel modes
• 7.5.2. Encouraging use of long-duration parking rather than drop-off or pickup modes
• 7.5.3. Promoting use of electric vehicles by private motorists and others

7.5.1 Encouraging the Use of Transit or High-Occupancy Travel Modes

Curbside traffic congestion can be mitigated (1) by increasing the number of passengers using high-occupancy modes, which reduces the number of vehicles using curbside facilities, or (2) by moving traffic to drop-off and pickup sites located outside of congested areas, such as a remote lot or drop-off point. Policies to encourage passenger use of high-occupancy modes typically focus on making those services more attractive to passengers and/or making lower-occupancy modes (i.e., services carrying a single passenger or travel party) less attractive. For this discussion, high-occupancy modes are those that (1) carry passengers who otherwise would not be traveling together in a single vehicle and (2) provide transportation for passengers who typically do not consider alternative modes, such as charter buses or courtesy vehicles operated by off-airport parking facilities, hotels/motels, and rental car operators. Therefore, services addressed in this section include

• Shared TNCs (such as UberX Share and Lyft Line)
• Shared-ride vans
• Scheduled vans and buses that are privately operated
• Scheduled vans and buses that are publicly operated, including those operated by public transit agencies or airport operators
• Rail or other fixed guideway services

Increasing the Attractiveness of High-Occupancy Modes

The following strategies can increase the attractiveness of high-occupancy modes for airline passengers:

• Convenient and attractive pickup/drop-off locations. Locate passenger pickup and/or drop-off at locations that minimize unassisted walking distances and level changes between the vehicle’s stop and airline ticket counters, security checkpoints, and baggage claim. Consider providing baggage drop-off or supplemental baggage drop-off services for passengers nearby.

• Locate fixed-rail station for easy access to the airport. Minimize unassisted walking distances, level changes, and mode changes between the vehicle’s stop and airline ticket counters, security checkpoints, and baggage claim areas. If track geometry and other considerations limit a close-in station, provide amenities at the rail station, such as baggage drop and walking assistance (e.g., moving walkways or APMs and motorized carts for disabled passengers).
• Express services. Provide commercial vehicle and rail routes that offer frequent, non-stop service between the airport and key regional destinations. The availability of economical long-term parking at those destinations further increases the attractiveness of such services.
• Reduced trip fees for providers. Reduce ground access fees (e.g., per-trip fees) for the providers of high-occupancy modes with the intent that the operators could, in turn, provide lower fares to passengers and/or increase the number of routes and/or frequencies of existing services.
• Fare or operating cost subsidies. Provide subsidies to reduce fares for passengers and employees (e.g., monthly passes) and/or increase the number of routes and/or frequencies of existing services.
• Marketing. Actively and visibly advertise and promote the availability of high-occupancy modes to serve airline passengers. Locations for such marketing include the airport’s webpage, context-based ads on other webpages (e.g., results for a web search for “TNC fares to XYZ airport” would also display ads for high-occupancy modes serving XYZ airport), and signage in high-visibility areas (e.g., baggage claim and billboards along major access roadways).

Decreasing the Attractiveness of Lower-Occupancy Modes

Airline passenger use of high-occupancy access modes could be increased by decreasing the relative attractiveness of lower-occupancy modes that use the curbsides. Some strategies are

• Less convenient pickup/drop-off locations. As a corollary to designating convenient pickup/drop-off areas for high-occupancy modes, direct lower-occupancy modes to less convenient locations, such as to outer island curbsides or parking facilities (i.e., provide no terminal curbside for lower-occupancy services as is done at some European airports, such as London Heathrow’s Terminal 5).
• Increased trip fees. Increase ground access fees for lower-occupancy commercial vehicles with the intent that the operators would, in turn, increase fares for their service.
• Curbside access fees. Implement curbside access fees for lower-occupancy services, including private vehicles, as is done in many airports in the United Kingdom.

Section 7.2.6. provides additional information regarding measures to encourage the use of transit or high-occupancy travel modes.

7.5.2 Encouraging Use of Long-Duration Parking Rather Than Drop-Off or Pickup Modes

Curbside traffic congestion can be mitigated by increasing the number of passengers using long-duration parking facilities, which reduces the number of vehicles using curbside facilities. Furthermore, if passengers choose to use long-duration parking facilities instead of using curbside pickup and drop-off modes, the number of vehicle trips and vehicle miles traveled associated with their air trip can be cut in half. Long-duration parking also typically can generate more net revenue per passenger than pickup and drop-off modes.

Policies to encourage passenger use of long-duration parking focus on either making long-duration parking more attractive to passengers and/or making curbside pickup and drop-off modes less attractive.

Increasing the Attractiveness of Long-Duration Parking or Remote Options

The following strategies can increase the attractiveness of on-airport, long-duration parking options for airline passengers:

• Price. Price long-term parking below the estimated cost of travelers using low-occupancy options. While many airports offer a fixed daily price, regardless of parking duration, some airports offer discounts for stays of 1 day or longer to compete with round-trip fares offered by taxis, TNCs, and other commercial ground transportation services.
• Availability. Ensure customers can find a space in their desired facility upon their arrival at the airport. Methods include offering parking reservations for a specific space, facility, or zone within a facility, or providing space availability information on the airport’s website.
• Online booking systems. Offer customers the ability to reserve and pay for a long-duration parking space in advance, which guarantees that their desired space will be available at a price they are willing to pay. Online booking systems can also be used to offer reduced prices.
• Attractive products. Offer specific parking products that use one or more of the strategies described in this section to target specific customer types (e.g., “Corporate Parking,” which is a short shuttle ride to the terminal, guarantees space availability, and offers newspapers and bottled water on the shuttle bus).
• Amenities. Offer amenities, such as car washing, vehicle servicing, and concierge programs.
• Shuttle service. For remote parking facilities, offer high-quality shuttle service between the parking facility and the terminal. Such services can include high-frequency service, pickup

• and drop-off at the customer’s vehicle, weather-protected shelters within the parking facility and at the terminal building, and drop-off and pickup points at curbside areas located close to terminal doorways (as opposed to on island curbsides).
• Loyalty programs. Offer customers a program that provides rewards (such as free parking days) based on their parking activity.
• Marketing. Actively promote the features and benefits of the on-airport, long-duration parking facilities. Such efforts include outreach to corporations to offer discounts or other benefits and use of search engine optimization to ensure web searches for parking at a given airport list the airport’s parking webpage at the top.
• Pickup/drop-off locations. Designate pickup and drop-off locations for on-airport parking courtesy shuttles in areas that minimize unassisted walking distances and level changes between the vehicle’s stop and airline ticket counters, security checkpoints, and baggage claim.
• Reduced fees. Reduce ground access and/or privilege fees for courtesy vehicles operated by off-airport parking operators with the intent that the operators could, in turn, provide lower prices to passengers.

Decreasing the Attractiveness of Curbside Pickup/Drop-off Modes

Airline passenger use of long-duration parking could be increased by strategies to decrease the relative attractiveness of curbside pickup/drop-off options:

• Less convenient pickup/drop-off locations. Direct pickup and drop-off services to less convenient locations such as outer island curbsides or parking facilities (i.e., provide no terminal curbsides).
• Increased trip fees. Increase ground access fees for vehicles using the terminal curbsides with the intent that the operators would, in turn, increase fares for their service.
• Curbside access fees. Implement curbside access fees for all modes, including private vehicles.
• Introduce airport transportation options at the time an airline ticket is booked. Educate the passenger about options for transportation to and from the airport earlier in the trip-planning process.

Section 7.2.5. provides additional information regarding measures to encourage the use of long-duration parking areas rather than drop-off or pickup at the terminal curbs.

7.5.3 Promoting Use of Electric Vehicles by Private Motorists and Others

To reduce emissions of vehicles traveling to and from the airport, an airport operator can take action to encourage airport passengers and commercial vehicle operators to purchase electric vehicles (EVs) and use them for airport access. EV charging infrastructure is lagging far behind demand. Providing EV charging services impacts sustainability goals, revenue generation, and the traveler experience. Such actions include

• Providing EV charging stations in airport parking facilities, commercial vehicle staging lots, and elsewhere.
• Providing EV chargers in attractive parking spaces (such as those located closest to the terminal building) and in commercial vehicle staging lots as a revenue/guest experience enhancement.
• Offering free or discounted power through the EV chargers as an incentive to increase utilization in certain areas.