training, hands-on training, and an evaluation should occur every three years. A4A also provides a limited outline of training content, including terminology, hazards, traffic flow and rules, signs and markings, speed limits, weather, emergencies, and pedestrian traffic. The document also provides some best practices and guidelines for driving on aircraft ramps (A4A 2018). ACI provides similar guidelines for airside driving training programs (ACI 2010).

The driver training programs at the interviewed airports varied based on the operational areas present at the airport. One common theme in driver training was that the movement area was limited to only those airport employees or tenants with an operational need. All of the airports indicated that they conducted movement area training. The airports indicated various training methods, including study guides, computer training, testing, drive-along training, and a driver’s test. ONT requires a minimum of 8 hours of supervised, behind-the-wheel training before an applicant becomes eligible to obtain a permit to operate a vehicle in their restricted area.

Most of the interviewed airports had non-movement or similar training programs. Some airports conduct this training, while others train and certify company employees as driver trainers. These “train the trainer” programs are designed for supervisors or managers of organizations operating at the airport to adhere to standardized testing and training procedures. Video, computer-based training, handbook review, or testing are utilized in their training programs. One of the airports indicated that each organization should provide non-movement drivers with route and rule familiarization and readiness assessments and should document initial and recurrent driving training.

DEN indicated they used quality assurance reviews to ensure companies comply with driver training requirements. These reviews could be conducted randomly or triggered by a significant driving violation or safety concern. The review involves reviewing the curriculum and completing an audit of randomly selected records for accuracy. Recommendations from the reviews may include areas for improvement or additional training.

A few unique driver’s training programs were mentioned during the interviews. BUR conducts a training program for construction workers, which consists of a ride-along with engineering staff to familiarize them with project haul routes and the airfield. Respondents from SEA indicated that the airport is implementing enhanced driving training for aircraft towing and is using an electronic virtual reality simulator of the driver in the seat of a tug. Some airports noted that they regularly communicate with drivers to remind them of driving rules.

Several GA airports indicated that access to the AOA is limited to pedestrians, and anyone needing to drive on the airfield would be escorted. APA allows GA hangar users to drive their private vehicles onto the airfield. The airport does not provide formal driving training to these users but provides drivers with rules and a map of the area. The airport requests that drivers use the gate closest to their hangar and give way to aircraft. The airport conducts training and recurrent training for drivers operating on VSRs outside the GA hangar area. It also trains firefighters who are part of the local fire district and respond to the airport but are located outside the AOA.

Airport Rules and Regulations

Airport rules and regulations play a role in maintaining airports’ safety, security, and efficiency. Part 139 requires airports to establish and implement procedures on various aspects of airport operations, including pedestrian and ground vehicle operations (CFR Part 139 2024).

Many of the interviewed airports have their airport rules and regulations posted on their websites. A review of these revealed that the operation of VSRs is subject to numerous rules and

regulations. The following provides a categorized list of example excerpts from VSR-related rules and regulations at several of the interviewed airports.

• Driving Rules
  • All vehicles will drive on the marked roadways in the ramp areas and will not drive across an open ramp area (Metropolitan Nashville Airport Authority 2021).
  • No person other than the operator of an aircraft servicing vehicle for that aircraft shall operate a motor vehicle on the AOA so as to pass within 20 feet of a parked aircraft unless traveling on a marked interior service road (Miami-Dade County 2024).
  • Drivers in the Restricted Area shall yield the right-of-way to moving aircraft and pedestrians at all times. Drivers shall yield the right-of-way to any vehicle using red or blue emergency lights or an audible emergency signal (Port of Portland 2021).
  • Driving under passenger boarding bridges is strictly prohibited (Metropolitan Nashville Airport Authority 2021).
• Vehicle Restrictions
  • The use of two- and three-wheeled cycles and motorcycles on AOA roadways, aircraft aprons, and cargo ramps is prohibited (Ontario International Airport 2020).
  • Motor Vehicles with axle loads exceeding 42,500 pounds are not permitted in aircraft parking areas, service roads, or perimeter roads without approval of the Airport Authority (Metropolitan Nashville Airport Authority 2021).
  • Lightweight specialty vehicles such as golf carts are prohibited from AOA roadways and must remain on passenger terminal aprons, cargo ramps, or leasehold areas (Ontario International Airport 2020).
  • Use of any autonomous vehicles is prohibited on any VSR, taxiway, tunnel, or roadway (Denver International Airport 2023).
  • Baggage trains operating on the ramp and VSRs shall not exceed a maximum of five carts/dollies behind the tow vehicle (Denver International Airport 2023).
  • No person shall use, ride, or drive a unicycle, a go-cart, roller skates, roller blades, or a skateboard on or at the airport, and no person shall walk, drive a motor vehicle, or ride a bicycle on any area of an airport made available to the public other than on roads, walks, or rights-of-way provided for such purpose (Miami-Dade County 2024).
• Parking
  • Aircraft shall not be parked on or over any designated VSR (Burbank-Glendale-Pasadena Airport Authority 2023).
  • All vehicles, equipment, and material must be located at least 5 feet from the fenceline where fencing is less than 12 feet in height (Port of Seattle 2024).
• Pedestrians
  • No person should walk across an open ramp area. Walking will be permitted between the terminal building and the designated roadway (Metropolitan Nashville Airport Authority 2021).
  • Pedestrian traffic is prohibited on AOA roadways, access lanes, driveways, and between passenger terminals (Ontario International Airport 2020).
• Apron Restrictions
  • There will be no “play” on any ramp areas by employees (Metropolitan Nashville Airport Authority 2021).
  • Cones or barricades placed to protect a parked aircraft shall not be placed on any VSR or outside of an area designed for aircraft parking (Burbank-Glendale-Pasadena Airport Authority 2023).
  • Vehicles may drive across or within the ramp areas beyond the limits of the VSR when permission is granted in advance by an airport operations manager or designee (Denver International Airport 2023).

were typically posted on less busy VSR segments outside the terminal area or on perimeter roads. The midfield tunnel at MIA has a posted speed limit of 15 mph inside and 5 mph on the ramps entering and exiting the tunnel. The tunnel connecting the terminal and concourses at DEN has a posted speed limit of 15 mph. Half of the airports utilize painted speed limit markings or speed limit signs (as shown in Figure 14).

All interviewees indicated that either airport or municipal police or airport operations staff monitor speed limits and have the authority to pull over vehicles in the AOA. Multiple airports indicated various penalties ranging from fines, retesting, safety hearings, temporary or permanent loss of driving privileges, and badge revocation. Two airports reported using an annual points system with associated penalties. Many airports have rules and regulations that include information on penalties related to driving infractions. The rules and regulations for ONT identify violation points for various safety violations related to driving (e.g., reckless driving, failure to report an accident, speeding, seatbelt use, parking) and non-driving (e.g., unauthorized smoking, hazmat disposal, littering, feeding wildlife). Two airports indicated that baggage tugs often exceed speed limits because of the absence of speedometers on these vehicles.

Vehicle Incidents

AC 150/5210-20A states that “each year, accidents, incidents, and runway incursions involving aircraft, pedestrians, ground vehicle drivers, and personnel taxiing or towing aircraft at airports can lead to property damage, injuries, and even death.” Part 139 requires certificated airports to establish operating procedures for safe and orderly access to movement and safety areas. Certificated airports must also maintain records for 12 months of any accidents or incidents in the movement areas and safety areas involving air carrier aircraft, a ground vehicle, or a pedestrian.

The FAA guides ground vehicle operators to immediately report accidents, especially in the case of a collision between a vehicle and an aircraft. Aircraft involved in collisions must be inspected and repaired before they can be flown (FAA Guide to Ground Vehicle Operations).

A4A recommends that airport authorities allocate resources for monitoring AOA activity and investigating serious or fatal accidents. The guidelines further recommend that all accidents be reviewed to determine whether or not they were preventable and identify the root cause to prevent similar accidents from occurring in the future (A4A 2018).

Most of the airports interviewed have rules and regulations that specify that drivers must report any accident resulting in damage to any vehicle, aircraft, or property or injury to any person. At some airports, these rules and regulations also apply to witnesses of accidents. Failure to report an accident or being involved in and negatively contributing to an AOA vehicle accident can result in losing points or driving privileges.

Weather and Nighttime Considerations

Nearly 70 airports in the United States have implemented a Surface Movement Guidance and Control System (SMGCS). The FAA defines SMGCS as “a system of lighting, markings, and signs on the airport that allow pilots to continue to operate in bad weather below minimums. Low Visibility Operations (LVO) allows an airport to continue operation when weather conditions deteriorate significantly below 1200 feet Runway Visual Range. Drivers must be aware of and trained in this area to be safe when aircraft are moving around the airport during SMGCS condition” (AC 5210-20A).

AC 5210-20A recommends developing procedures for vehicular traffic in the movement areas, including restricting vehicles to only those areas essential to supporting LVO. The AC

recommends that an airport review vehicle control and identify additional marking, lighting, restrictions, or other measures to control vehicles in non-movement areas.

AC 120-57C indicates that the SMGCS plan should include apron traffic management procedures for all non-movement apron areas used by aircraft or vehicles. These procedures should indicate who will coordinate the traffic movement in the apron area and what access to the apron area is restricted to ensure the safe movement of all aircraft and vehicles.

Some interviewees indicated restrictions at their airports related to low visibility conditions as part of their SMGCS operating plans. These restrictions include suspending VSR taxiway crossings or certain VSRs and restricting VSR use by non-essential employees, such as concessionaires, vendors, and contractors. Other airports restrict all movement area VSRs during low visibility conditions.

During snow conditions, one of the airports reported having assigned crews to clear ARFF access roads and critical VSRs. Some airports indicated that clearing VSRs was part of their published snow and ice control plans and that snow cleared from aprons must be pushed out and beyond apron VSRs to ensure they remain clear for vehicle use.

AC 5210-20A recommends that “vehicles that routinely operate in the movement and safety areas be marked or flagged for high daytime visibility and, if appropriate, lighted for nighttime operations. Vehicles equipped with marking and lighting devices can escort vehicles that are not marked and lighted.” AC 150/5210-5D guides the painting, marking, and lighting of vehicles operating in the AOA to ensure that vehicles are easily noticeable. The AC indicates that the recognition of vehicles during low visibility and nighttime is improved by proper lighting and incorporating reflective paint or tape on a vehicle’s surface.

Vehicle Gates

Part 139 certificated airports must provide “safeguards to prevent inadvertent entry to the movement area by unauthorized vehicles.” TSA is responsible for the security of transportation, and the regulations related to civil aviation are included in Part 1542. As mentioned previously, commercial service airports must adopt and implement a security program acceptable to TSA, which contains elements that maintain the security of the movement area, secured areas, and SIDA. AC 150/5300-13B outlines basic measures and controls acceptable to the FAA to maintain the security of the AOA at a certificated airport. TSA provides information on the planning and design of vehicle access points and suggests that the number of access points is kept to a minimum but recognizes that an adequate number is required to accommodate route operations used by operations, police, catering, fuel, cargo, deliveries, and ground service equipment. The guidelines also indicate that most gates used for routine operations typically have a high vehicle throughput and should be designed to minimize user delays through the use of automation and electronic access control (TSA 2006).

TSA guidelines also provide information on the operation of gates utilized by both on-airport and mutual aid emergency vehicles responding to incidents in the movement area. These gates may be controlled by an emergency operations center or ARFF response vehicles. The capability of emergency response vehicles to crash through frangible mounts at emergency operations gates should be considered (TSA 2006).

There are no regulations that establish security requirements for GA airports. TSA (2017) provides voluntary guidelines and suggestions for GA airport security in its publication Security Guidelines for General Aviation Airport Operators and Uses. This guidebook indicates that access points for personnel and vehicles should be considered, and the number of access points should

be minimized. TSA also suggests that vehicle access points should differentiate between authorized and unauthorized users.

Tailgating is a primary concern for vehicle gates, especially at unstaffed vehicle gates. Tailgating involves an unauthorized vehicle closely following behind an authorized vehicle to pass through an access point before the gate closes. TSA suggests installing signage to remind vehicle operators to confirm gate closure. Vehicle gates and corridors should also be designed to allow only one vehicle to pass at a time (TSA 2017).

Pedestrian Considerations

The FAA does not provide guidelines on pathways or markings for pedestrian crossings of VSRs. A4A identifies pedestrian pathways for crossing VSRs, specifies the dimensions of pedestrian pathways crossing VSRs, and indicates that they should be painted white with texture and placed to keep pedestrians clear of hazards (A4A 2017). ACI provides similar guidelines for pedestrian VSR crossings (ACI 2017). Part 139 requires certificated airports to limit access and have procedures for controlling pedestrians in movement and safety areas.

The interviewees reported several ways that pedestrians are protected at their airports. The airports:

• Implement pedestrian crossings and marking;
• Install flashing lights and stop signs at pedestrian crossings;
• Restrict pedestrians from crossing aprons, taxilanes/taxiways, and adjacent aircraft parking positions;
• Require high-visibility clothing and vests;
• Restrict pedestrians to only using pedestrian doors and prohibit entry through vehicle gates;
• Educate drivers to look for and always yield to pedestrians;
• Reduce the number of locations where pedestrians can cross VSRs;
• Implement reduced speed limits in baggage makeup areas similar to walking speeds;
• Restrict employees to be present only within their respective work areas;
• Enforce violations for drivers who fail to yield to pedestrians; and
• Light areas where pedestrian crosswalks are present.

Figure 37 shows examples of pedestrian crossings and associated markings from the interviewed airports.