Air Emissions from Animal Feeding Operations: Current Knowledge, Future Needs (2003)
Chapter: Front Matter
AIR EMISSIONS From Animal Feeding Operations
Current Knowledge, Future Needs
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, D.C. www.nap.edu
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This study was supported by Contract No. 68-D-01-69 between the National Academy of Sciences and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Grant No. 59-0790-2-106 between the National Academy of Sciences and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.
International Standard Book Number: 0-309-08705-8
Library of Congress Control Number: 200310401
Additional copies of this report are available from the
National Academies Press,
500 Fifth Street, N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, DC 20055; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area); Internet, http://www.nap.edu
Copyright 2003 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medicine
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Wm. A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsib-ility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. Wm. A. Wulf are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.
AD HOC COMMITTEE ON AIR EMISSIONS FROM ANIMAL FEEDING OPERATIONS
PERRYR. HAGENSTEIN (Chair),
Institute for Forest Analysis, Planning, and Policy, Wayland, Massachusetts
ROBERTG. FLOCCHINI (Vice Chair),
University of California, Davis, California
JOHNC. BAILARIII,
University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
CANDISCLAIBORN,
Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
RUSSELLR. DICKERSON,
University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
JAMESN. GALLOWAY,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
MARGARETROSSOGROSSMAN,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
PRASADKASIBHATLA,
Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
RICHARDA. KOHN,
University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
MICHAELP. LACY,
University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
CALVINB. PARNELL, JR.,
Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
ROBBIH. PRITCHARD,
South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota
WAYNEP. ROBARGE,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
DANIELA. WUBAH,
James Madison University, Harrisonburg, Virginia
KELLYD. ZERING,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
RUIHONGZHANG,
University of California, Davis, California
Consultant
MICHAELOPPENHEIMER,
Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
Staff
JAMIEJONKER, Study Director
CHADTOLMAN, Program Officer
TANJAPILZAK, Research Assistant
JOEESPARZA, Project Assistant
STEPHANIEPADGHAM, Project Assistant
BRYANSHIPLEY, Project Assistant
PETERRODGERS, Intern
FLORENCEPOILLON, Contract Editor
COMMITTEE ON ANIMAL NUTRITION
GARYL. CROMWELL (Chair),
University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
C. ROSELINAANGEL,
University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
JESSEP. GOFF,
United States Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Service, Ames, Iowa
RONALDW. HARDY,
University of Idaho, Hagerman, Idaho
KRISTENA. JOHNSON,
Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
BRIANW. MCBRIDE,
University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
KEITHE. RINEHART,
Perdue Farms Incorporated, Salisbury, Maryland
L. LEESOUTHERN,
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
DONALDR. TOPLIFF,
West Texas A&M University, Canyon, Texas
Staff
JAMIEJONKER, Program Officer
JOEESPARZA, Project Assistant
BOARD ON AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
HARLEYW. MOON (Chair),
Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
SANDRABARTHOLMEY,
Quaker Oats Company, Barrington, Illinois
DEBORAHBLUM,
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin
ROBERTB. FRIDLEY,
University of California, Davis, California
BARBARAGLENN,
Federation of Animal Science Societies, Bethesda, Maryland
LINDAGOLODNER,
National Consumers League, Washington, D.C.
W.R. (REG) GOMES,
University of California, Oakland, California
PERRYR. HAGENSTEIN,
Institute for Forest Analysis, Planning, and Policy, Wayland, Massachusetts
CALESTOUSJUMA,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
JANETC. KING,
University of California, Davis, California
WHITNEYMACMILLAN,
Cargill, Incorporated, Minneapolis, Minnesota
PAMELAA. MATSON,
Stanford University, Stanford, California
TERRYMEDLEY,
DuPont Biosolutions Enterprise, Wilmington, Delaware
ALICEPELL,
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
SHARRONS. QUISENBERRY,
Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana
NANCYJ. RACHMAN,
Novigen Sciences, Incorporated, Washington, D.C.
SONYASALAMON,
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
G. EDWARDSCHUH,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
BRIANSTASKAWICZ,
University of California, Berkeley, California
JACKWARDTHOMAS,
University of Montana, Missoula, Montana
JAMESTUMLINSON,
United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Gainesville, Florida
B.L. TURNER,
Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts
Staff
CHARLOTTEKIRKBAER, Director
STEPHANIEPADGHAM, Senior Project Assistant
BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY
GORDONORIANS(Chair),
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
JOHNDOULL(Vice Chair),
University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Missouri
DAVIDALLEN,
University of Texas, Austin, Texas
THOMASBURKE,
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
JUDITHC. CHOW,
Desert Research Institute, Reno, Nevada
CHRISTOPHERB. FIELD,
Carnegie Institute of Washington, Stanford, California
WILLIAMH. GLAZE,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
SHERRIW. GOODMAN,
Center for Naval Analyses, Alexandria, Virginia
DANIELS. GREENBAUM,
Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts
ROGENEHENDERSON,
Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, New Mexico
CAROLHENRY,
American Chemistry Council, Arlington, Virginia
ROBERTHUGGETT,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
BARRYL. JOHNSON,
Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
JAMESH. JOHNSON,
Howard University, Washington, D.C.
JAMESA. MACMAHON,
Utah State University, Logan, Utah
PATRICKV. O’BRIEN,
Chevron Research and Technology, Richmond, California
DOROTHYE. PATTON,
International Life Sciences Institute, Washington, D.C.
ANNPOWERS,
Pace University School of Law, White Plains, New York
LOUISEM. RYAN,
Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts
JONATHANM. SAMET,
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
KIRKSMITH,
University of California, Berkeley, California
LISASPEER,
Natural Resources Defense Council, New York, New York
G. DAVIDTILMAN,
University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
CHRISG. WHIPPLE,
Environ Incorporated, Emeryville, California
LAURENA. ZEISE,
California Environmental Protection Agency, Oakland, California
Staff
JAMESJ. REISA, Director
RAYWASSEL, Program Director
MIMIANDERSON, Senior Project Assistant
Acknowledgments
This report represents the integrated efforts of many individuals. The committee thanks all those who shared their insights and knowledge to bring the document to fruition. We also thank all those who provided information at our public meetings and who participated in our public sessions.
During the course of its deliberations, the committee sought assistance from several people who gave generously of their time to provide advice and information that were considered in its deliberations. Special thanks are due the following:
JOHNALBERTSON, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
C. RICHARDAMERMAN, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland
BOBBOTTCHER (Deceased), North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
GARTHBOYD, Murphy-Brown LLC, Warsaw, North Carolina
LEONARDBULL, Animal and Poultry Waste Center, Raleigh, North Carolina
TOMCHRISTENSEN, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland
JOHND. CRENSHAW, Eastern Research Group, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
TONYDELANY, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado
RALPHERNST, University of California, Davis, California
MICHAELFITZGIBBON, California Environmental Protection Agency, Sacramento, California
ERICGONDER, Goldsboro Milling Company, Goldsboro, North Carolina
ALEXGUENTHER, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado
ELLENHANKES, Environmental Management Solutions, LLC, Des Moines, Iowa
LOWRYHARPER, United States Department of Agriculture, Watkinsville, Georgia
BRUCEHARRIS, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
TOMHORST, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado
DONALDJOHNSON, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
RENEEJOHNSON, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
RAYKNIGHTON, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland
GARYMARGHEIM, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
JOHNH. MARTIN, JR., Hall Associates, Dover, Delaware
F. ROBERTMCGREGOR, Water and Waste Engineering, Incorporated, Denver, Colorado
DEANNEMEYER, University of California, Davis, California
BOBMOSER, ConAgra Beef, Kersey, Colorado
DANIELMURPHY, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Boulder, Colorado
BRENTNEWELL, California Rural Legal Assistance Foundation, Sacramento, California
ROYOOMMEN, Eastern Research Group, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
JOSEPHRUDEK, Environmental Defense, Raleigh, North Carolina
GARYSAUNDERS, North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Raleigh, North Carolina
SUSANSCHIFFMAN, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
SALLYSHAVER, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
MARKSOBSEY, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
JOHNSWEETEN, Texas A&M University, Amarillo, Texas
DAVIDTOWNSEND, Premium Standard Farms Research and Development, Kansas City, Missouri
RANDYWAITE, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
JOHNT. WALKER, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
The committee is grateful to members of the National Research Council staff who worked diligently to maintain progress and quality in its work.
The report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this report:
DAVIDT. ALLEN, The University of Texas, Austin, Texas
WILLIAMBATTYE, EC/R Incorporated, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
VANC. BOWERSOX, Illinois State Water Survey, Champaign, Illinois
ELLISB. COWLING, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
DANNYG. FOX, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
ROGENEHENDERSON, National Environmental Respiratory Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico
KRISTENA. JOHNSON, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
DEANNEMEYER, University of California, Davis, California
GEORGEMOUNT, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
ROGERA. PIELKE, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
WENDYJ. POWERS, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
JOSEPHRUDEK, Environmental Defense, Raleigh, North Carolina
MARGOTRUDSTROM, University of Minnesota, Morris, Minnesota
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was overseen by Bob Frosch, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Albert Heber, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana. Appointed by the National Research Council, they were responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
Preface
The increasing concentration of food production—meat, eggs, milk—from animals in very large feeding operations has focused public attention on associated environmental issues. These include the effects of air emissions, especially those that come from the large quantities of manure produced by the animals. While concern has mounted, research to provide the basic information needed for effective regulation and management of these emissions has languished.
This report, prepared by a committee appointed by the National Research Council, proposes two major ways to improve information and the nation’s ability to deal with the effects of these emissions. One is to change the way in which the rates and fate of air emissions are estimated and tracked. The proposal would replace the current “emission factor” approach with a “process-based modeling” approach. This can, if pursued vigorously, enhance both regulation and management of air emissions in the next two to five years.
The other proposal is for a research program that views air emissions as one part of the overall system of producing food from animal feeding operations with the goal of eliminating the release of unwanted emissions into the environment. This “systems-based” proposal, if also pursued vigorously, would lead to fundamentally changed practices at animal feeding operations. The net result would be continued food production with greatly reduced adverse environmental effects.
The 16-person committee that produced this report and an earlier interim report worked hard and well. The time allowed for producing the two reports was short, but committee members found time in their schedules to address what each sees as an important issue that needs attention. The project staff at the Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Jamie Jonker, study director, and Tanja Pilzak, research assistant, and the Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicol-
ogy, Chad Tolman, program officer, deserve special thanks for their long hours of very effective work. An informal editorial subcommittee that handled reviewer comments and provided enormous help throughout also deserves special thanks. The members were Chair Perry Hagenstein, Vice Chair Bob Flocchini, Jim Galloway, Rick Kohn, and, for the interim report, Wayne Robarge.
Perry Hagenstein, Chair
Robert Flocchini, Vice Chair
Committee on Air Emissions from Animal Feeding Operations
Tables, Figures, and Boxes
TABLES
ES-1 | Committee’s Scientific Evaluation of the Potential Importance of AFO Emissions at Different Spatial Scales, | |||
1-1 | Substances in AFO Emissions That the Committee Was Tasked to Address and Their Respective Classifications, | |||
2-1 | U.S. Per Capita Consumption of Meat, Dairy Products, and Eggs in 2001, | |||
2-2 | Leading Livestock Production States by Animal Sector, | |||
2-3 | Number of Animals per EPA Animal Unit, | |||
3-1 | Annual Anthropogenic Emissions of Constituents of Concern, 1990, | |||
3-2 | Measured Emission Fluxes of Ammonia from Primary Anaerobic Swine Lagoons as a Function of Measurement Method and Period, | |||
3-3 | Relationship of Management Practices on 4 percent Fat Corrected Milk and Nitrogen Utilization Efficiency, | |||
3-4 | Typical Lifetimes in the Planetary Boundary Layer for Pollutants Emitted from Animal Feeding Operations, | |||
3-5 | Short-Term Exposure to Ammonia, | |||
3-6 | Long-Term Exposure to Ammonia, | |||
3-7 | Committee’s Scientific Evaluation of the Potential Importance of AFO Emissions at Different Spatial Scales, |
5-1 | Maximum Methane Production Potential of Animal Manure as Affected by Different Diets, | |||
6-1 | Overview of Federal Statutes and Their Provisions, | |||
8-1 | Committee’s Scientific Evaluation of the Potential Importance of AFO Emissions at Different Spatial Scales, | |||
D-1 | Typical Nitrogen and Sulfur Content of Animal Products, | |||
D-2 | Nitrogen and Sulfur Content of Animal Live Weight Gain, | |||
D-3 | Sample Excretion Predictions Directly from Different Types of Food Production Animals, | |||
L-1 | Odor Emission Rates from Animal Housing as Reported in the Literature, |
FIGURES
1-1 | Mass flows (teragrams of nitrogen per year) of new reactive nitrogen in U.S. agriculture in 1997, | |||
3-1 | Relative excretion rate of nitrogen versus day in the life cycle of a grow-finish hog at a commercial swine production facility in the southeastern United States, | |||
3-2 | Nitrogen cascade, | |||
4-1 | Ammonia concentrations (averaged over a 68-m path) measured near a dairy wastewater lagoon, | |||
4-2 | Schematic illustrating the essential elements associated with measurement of emissions from agricultural sources that can be characterized as low-level point sources such as cotton gins, feed mills, grain elevators, and oil mills, | |||
4-3 | Schematic illustrating the essential elements associated with measurement of emissions from agricultural sources that can be characterized as ground-level area sources such as dairies, cattle feed yards, field operation, and agricultural burning, | |||
4-4 | Schematic illustrating the essential element associated with regulation of emissions from agricultural sources that can be characterized as low-level point sources such as tunnel-ventilated AFOs, | |||
4-5 | Schematic illustrating the essential element associated with regulation of emissions from agricultural sources that can be characterized as low-level point sources such as naturally ventilated AFOs, |
5-1 | A schematic representation of a process-based model of emissions from an animal production system, | |||
7-1 | Animal feeding operations system (animal plus associated cropland), | |||
D-1 | Change in body protein percentage as cattle mature, | |||
K-1 | Distribution of milk cows in 1997, | |||
K-2 | Distribution of cattle fattened on grain and concentrates and sold in 1997, | |||
K-3 | Distribution of hogs and pigs sold in 1997, | |||
K-4 | Distribution of broilers and other meat-type chickens sold in 1997, | |||
K-5 | Distribution of turkeys sold in 1997, | |||
K-6 | Distribution of layers and pullets, 13 weeks old and older in 1997, |
BOXES
