Amazon Appstore, Windows Phone Store, and BlackBerry World) was almost four million. The applications covered many fields and can execute various tasks, but they have one primary purpose: delivering a service (Krouse, 2012).

Establishing a mobile device strategy before selecting a mobile device and application is essential. Since carrying multiple devices is not ideal for construction professionals, the selected applications must be compatible with the device used for work purposes. Different mobile devices with varying operating systems limit the choice of applications. When choosing a mobile device, the advantages and disadvantages of its operating systems must be considered (Barbarosoglu and Arditi, 2016). In addition to the goal of mobile computing, which is recognized as “anytime, anywhere,” pervasive computing adopts an integrative strategy to achieve the concept of “all the time, everywhere,” which proactively allows users to have seamless access to computing whenever they need it (Chen and Kamara, 2005).

2.2 Mobile Device Use by State Departments of Transportation

In 2022, a survey questionnaire was distributed to the members of the AASHTO COC of DOTs in 50 states and the District of Columbia. The results from 42 DOTs (an 82% response rate) indicated that tablets and smartphones are the dominant mobile devices used by the 41 DOTs reporting use of mobile devices for inspection of highway infrastructure during construction (90% of the 41 DOT responses) and maintenance of assets (39% of the 41 DOT responses) (Tran et al., 2022). The most common inspection activities using tablets and smartphones during construction, as collected from the survey and case examples of Tran et al., include verifying and documenting work completed for payment, monitoring construction progress, and capturing site photos and videos. Mobile devices and software applications allow DOTs to improve the process of collecting, documenting, and distributing project inspection information. Eight state DOTs (Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and South Dakota) reported substantial use of mobile devices and software applications for highway construction inspection and asset management. Most mobile devices are used for assessment of infrastructure. The top inspection activities that utilize tablets and smartphones during highway construction include verification and documentation of work completed for payment, monitoring construction progress, and capturing site photos and videos (Tran et al., 2022).

Routine and consistent data collection is required to address contemporary transportation issues. Data collection costs increase significantly when sophisticated devices are used to collect data. Due to this constraint, DOTs struggle to collect consistent data for analyzing and resolving transportation problems on time (Aboah et al., 2022).

Mobile device cameras can be used for different measurement and documentation tasks (Obaidat, 2020). Using mobile phones with video cameras, Lapeyronnie et al. (2008) studied urban road traffic displacement and classification in real time. An odometer and GPS were used to measure vehicle speed from mobile images with high performance and low computing complexity.

2.3 Mobile Device Benefits

Using mobile computing devices, such as personal digital assistants, smartphones, and other mobile-enabled technologies, construction managers can input, store, process, and access project information and communicate that information to any location (Son et al., 2012). Also, these technologies can provide a link to workers at their point of activity so that lessons learned as the project progresses are captured immediately; subsequently, the real-time knowledge can be incorporated into future phases of the current project (Bowden et al., 2006).

The main advantage of tablets and smartphone devices is that they enable construction professionals to work interactively and dynamically. Data collected from the site is shared in real time among the project participants with visual attachments, and site reports are generated with more accurate and up-to-date information. These advantages outweigh the costs of user training and the purchase of mobile devices and applications (Barbarosoglu and Arditi, 2016). The rising popularity of smartphones and other mobile devices has led to the development of an increasing number of mobile applications specifically tailored to carry out tasks associated with project management. Examples include applications that help with bid management and communication and plan and specification review with markup functionality. The development of mobile applications was undertaken to shed light on how previously acquired skills may be adapted to the dynamic nature of the sector’s business environment. Currently, the most significant impact is in BIM, often known as “virtual design,” and construction or digital project delivery. Mobile/cloud BIM technology facilitates real-time communication among project team members and external stakeholders, thus enhancing cooperation and collaboration. BIM technology is widely acknowledged as a useful tool in construction activities that helps prevent delays and conflicts on-site (Abanda et al., 2018). Wong et al. (2014) reported that, in the construction stage, mobile/cloud BIM technology helps with tracking progress, scheduling coordination of construction, eliminating clashes due to design mistakes, and facilitating the remote exchange of data wirelessly through the Internet. Chong et al. (2007) noted that mobile BIM technology enables higher levels of cooperation and collaboration, thereby providing a more effective platform for virtual communication among project participants. With the introduction of mobile devices and their accompanying collaboration technologies, companies can now collaborate with all relevant parties in real time wherever they are located on the work site (Bigirumuremyi et al., 2022). The continuing development of affordable mobile technologies, such as handheld computers, smartphones, and tablet PCs, alongside the latest generation communications infrastructure (3G, WLAN, and GPRS), could provide the missing link to help address the ongoing drive for process improvement and revaluing construction (Bowden et al., 2006).

Mobile devices, such as tablets and electronic handheld devices used to collect and input data on transportation projects, are helpful for field inspection and acceptance (Xu et al., 2019). Mobile devices can also be integrated with global navigation satellite system devices to capture geospatial information about assets (Dadi et al., 2022). A review of examples of mobile technology use highlighted the following benefits:

• More efficient management of checklists, documentation, and sign-offs
• Greatly improved efficiency and accuracy of site inspections and reporting
• More accurate customer invoicing and real-time tracking for prompt payments
• Performance monitoring and evaluation
• Better client relationship management and satisfaction
• Reduced liability and risks through accurate and prompt compliance reporting
• Greater visibility into workforce productivity
• Overall improvement in productivity and profit margin on the job
• Ability to more accurately and efficiently price and track change orders (Liu et al., 2019)

2.4 Mobile Device Challenges

Despite the numerous benefits of using mobile devices for inspection purposes, challenges include the need for a significant initial investment and training of workers to use the technology (Dadi et al., 2022). Barriers include resistance to change and hesitancy in adopting new technology (Ahmad et al., 2017). Experts highlighted other challenges, such as the need for more collaboration across the industry, the affordability of technology, and the lack of expertise.

The most common challenges when using mobile devices and software applications for highway infrastructure inspection during construction or maintenance of assets include the following: (1) lack of reliable Internet connection in remote locations; (2) lack of training, knowledge, and skills to use technologies; (3) cost issues; (4) device maintenance and user support; and (5) resistance to change (Tran et al., 2022). Other challenges include the following:

• The characteristics of the mobile devices that the company provides to workers, some of whom may be unable to use them
• The Internet speed on-site
• The Internet browser versions of the company’s computers
• Proliferation in the system of information that is not useful to work
• The current search engine of the system and the use of keywords included in the prototype (Ferrada et al., 2016)

It is noteworthy that the principal barriers are physical and technical. In other words, people tend to be discouraged by the tools’ limitations. Moreover, cultural and age differences are significant obstacles to adoption. The interviews by Barbarosoglu and Arditi (2016) revealed that highly experienced people have adapted to traditional methods and are resistant to change. Realizing the potential of the applications, the IT department has a specific platform that they require. However, an application does not permit that, particularly when it is not even within the agency.

Hasan et al. (2021) noted that some large construction companies establish separate IT departments to develop in-house applications in order to avoid substantial user license fees or obtain customized applications with the exact functions they need. However, Hasan et al. (2021) also found that in-house applications are generally considered less user-friendly and less intuitive and often do not possess many of the functionalities and capabilities offered by similar commercial applications. Mobile devices that construction management professionals use are often developed without considering the local realities of construction. As a result, force–fitting these technologies into a construction work environment and work processes without a clear strategic plan is likely to face user resistance.

Other implementation barriers are poor information exchange, a sizable initial investment, unawareness of the benefits of mobile devices, and complexity of the software. These patterns are categorized into “people,” “technology,” and “process,” three critical drivers for boosting the adoption of on-site digital tools. People are the most crucial main drivers. Companies have many options to motivate people to utilize the new technology, from enhancing the existing training scheme to imposing these tools (Barbarosoglu and Arditi, 2016).