Implementation of Uncrewed Aircraft Systems Operational Capabilities: A Guide (2025)
Chapter: 2 Industry and Technology Trends
CHAPTER 2
Industry and Technology Trends
The enabling technologies associated with the UAS and AAM industries are rapidly progressing. This chapter provides a brief overview of the history of UAS, including their origin and the regulatory environment of the last two decades. Additionally, the chapter provides a summary of UAS technology, its subsequent adoption, introduction of UAS use cases, and overall trends. The umbrella term AAM and the associated emerging technologies that will enable AAM use cases are also discussed.
UAS History
UAS is a growing industry with a plethora of commercial and hobbyist use cases. UAS can be remotely controlled or operated using autonomous technology, and these technologies are not as new as one would expect in such a young industry. Many new ideas and technologies are initially developed, tested, and used in military scenarios prior to becoming available to civilians; UAS are no exception. The first pilotless aircraft were invented during World War I:
- In 1917, the British military flew what was called the Aerial Target.
- In 1918, the United States military flew the Kettering Bug (Vyas 2020).
In 2006, the FAA created the Unmanned Aircraft Program Office with the goal of integrating commercial UAS use into the NAS (FAA 2006). Leading into fall 2016, 13 permits had been approved by the FAA for commercial UAS operations. This number drastically changed in 2016 with the creation of 14 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 107 – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems. The FAA began issuing thousands of permits each year following the passage of this new regulation (Alkobi 2019).
The Part 107 – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems regulations define small UAS as any aircraft that weighs 55 pounds or less at takeoff, including the aircraft itself and its payload. These regulations outline the requirements of small UAS registration, remote pilot certification requirements, and all operational and safety regulations associated with UAS flights. Although restrictions exist within the current UAS rules, the passage of the 14 CFR Part 107 regulation stimulated tremendous growth in the commercial and recreational use of UAS. As of January 2024, the FAA reported 863,728 UAS registered in the United States and 331,573 certified remote pilots (FAA 2024).
Another regulatory pathway that was used along the way for UAS operations and is still in use today by some state DOTs is to complete operations as a Public Aircraft Operator under (49 U.S.C.) § 40102(a)(41). For operations performed under Public Aircraft Operations, the agency takes on the liability to set its operational specifications for pilots and aircraft. To learn more about this option, visit FAA – Public Aircraft Operations (https://www.faa.gov/uas/public_safety_gov/drone_program/public_aircraft_operations). As a public agency, it can be beneficial to have the ability to perform operations under both of these regulatory frameworks.
UAS Technology Adoption
There are three main UAS platforms and a variety of sensors available for a wide range of uses. Each UAS platform has advantages and disadvantages that should be carefully considered. Which sensor to use for particular use cases to ensure successful data collection should also be considered. The three main categories of small UAS are: multirotor, fixed-wing, and an emerging category that is a hybrid between multirotor and fixed-wing, capable of a vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) and the ability to transition to traditional forward flight. These three platforms and their associated capabilities are presented in Table 1.
UAS have seen a surge in applications in recent years, driven by advancements in technology, declining costs, and proof of utility (Banks et al. 2018). The versatility of UAS has made them suitable for a wide range of applications, including aerial photography and videography, goods delivery, search and rescue operations, infrastructure inspections, agricultural applications, and environmental monitoring.
The transportation sector is one area in which UAS has seen significant adoption. State DOTs are using UAS to gather data and improve the efficiency of their operations. In 2018, 20 state DOTs were using UAS; in 2022, all state DOTs self-reported the use of UAS (AASHTO 2019). State DOTs are deploying UAS for multiple use cases, including using them as a supplemental tool for inspecting bridges, roads, retaining walls, and other infrastructure, which can reduce the risk to workers. UAS can also be used in surveying projects, estimating quantities, monitoring roadways for traffic patterns, assessing the impact of natural disasters on transportation networks, and supporting planning and design activities. Hubbard and Hubbard (2020a) highlight over 40 reported use cases across state DOTs throughout the United States.
In addition to improving operational efficiency, state DOTs also use UAS to enhance safety. For instance, UAS can be used to inspect hard-to-reach areas, such as high bridges or steep slopes, reducing the risk to workers who would otherwise have to climb to these areas. UAS can also be used to monitor construction sites, ensure workers are following safety protocols, and monitor traffic in real time, providing time-sensitive information to drivers and first responders. This research project is focused on state DOT adoption of UAS technologies, and the growth of UAS applications in the transportation sector is just one example of how this technology is transforming a wide range of industries.
Table 1. Overview of UAS platforms and capabilities.
| Category | Multirotor |
Fixed-Wing |
Hybrid VTOL |
| Features |
|
|
|
Image sources: Multirotor: Adobe Stock; Fixed-Wing: Trimble; Hybrid VTOL: Adobe Stock.
The FHWA has been supporting the adoption of UAS technologies by state DOTs, starting with the fifth round of the Every Day Counts Initiative (EDC-5) between 2019 and 2020. The initiative has helped state DOTs use UAS in their operations by providing guidance, resources, and funding opportunities. For example, the initiative has published peer exchange reports and technical briefs and has developed other training materials such as webinars and online modules. These resources have been developed to help state DOTs understand the benefits and limitations of UAS technology, as well as the regulations and policies governing their use.
The EDC Initiative has also facilitated collaboration between state DOTs and other stakeholders, including UAS manufacturers, service providers, academic institutions, and local agencies. These collaborative events have taken the form of peer exchanges and workshops, during which state DOTs access the latest UAS technology and share knowledge and experience with other state DOTs. The results of these collaborative efforts have assisted state DOTs in making informed decisions about incorporating UAS into their operations, improving efficiency and effectiveness.
UAS Technology Trends
The widespread adoption of UAS across transportation agencies has led numerous agencies to explore what other technologies can be used with UAS. One example is the use of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) to help process UAS-collected data by automating and optimizing various data analysis tasks. ML algorithms can be trained to recognize patterns in large data sets and make predictions based on the data, which reduces the manual effort required to process and analyze the data.
In a collaborative effort between the Colorado DOT and researchers at Colorado State University, researchers created and tested an AI data processing model that can automatically perform a variety of tasks when fed UAS bridge inspection data. The AI-powered data processing algorithms can quickly identify areas of interest and extract meaningful insights, such as the type, location, and details of infrastructure defects. AI can also produce three-dimensional (3D) models and georeferenced, element-level as-built bridge information models where the structure and its identified defects can be visualized and documented (Perry et al. 2020). Using these technologies allows organizations to efficiently collect data and proficiently process the data to produce impactful data models. This, in turn, enables organizations to make data-driven decisions faster and with greater accuracy. While all federal inspection procedures must be followed, these advances in technology can supplement the current procedures while AI technology continues to mature.
UAS can be a highly effective data collection tool, and sensor technology continues to improve, allowing state DOTs to capture high-quality photos, videos, or other data. These high-definition photos can be useful on their own, but many state DOTs take the photos and use photogrammetry to create robust 3D models and orthomosaic maps. There is a growing trend toward greater data integration, leveraging the benefits of digital twins and digital as-builts. UAS play a critical role in the data collection to enable these possibilities.
The data sets and data models created using UAS can be powerful tools for state DOTs across the lifecycle of transportation infrastructure, but these data-heavy products have been challenging to manage. The growing amounts of high-quality data combined with the overall trend toward more digital products have revealed challenges such as data storage limitations, data organization, and other unknowns around the best use of the collected and processed data. This topic of data management is discussed further in the “UAS Data Coordination” section of Chapter 5: Framework and Tools for Coordinating Resources.
In March 2022, the FAA’s UAS Beyond Visual Line of Sight (BVLOS) Aviation Rulemaking Committee released its final report, summarizing recommendations for the FAA on how to advance operations of UAS when they are piloted outside the visual line of sight of their pilots. The report acknowledges that the current regulations do not reflect the capabilities or maturity of UAS technologies. The rulemaking committee noted that the current restriction of UAS operations to be within line of sight is one of the biggest constraints to UAS technology scaling and maximizing “societal and economic benefits for the American public” (FAA 2022b). A team at the FAA has been reviewing the 381-page recommendations report from the UAS BVLOS Aviation Rulemaking Committee and is preparing to issue new regulations. The FAA anticipates that the Notice of Proposed Rulemaking for Part 108, which will be the new rule for BVLOS operations, will be published in 2025.
Another trend is the increase in the autonomy of aircraft systems. Autonomous aircraft can fly without a human pilot, and BVLOS operations allow aircraft to fly beyond the remote pilot’s line of sight. These technologies are critical components for scaling new transportation options such as UAS delivery and air taxis.
Another emerging technology trend for UAS, which will not reach its full potential until enabled by BVLOS regulations, is “drone-in-a-box” platforms. Drone-in-a-box is the industry term given to describe a type of autonomous UAS technology that consists of an aircraft, a weatherproof container, and an operating system. Together, these components are capable of autonomously launching the UAS, completing the mission, and returning to the housing system, where it can upload the collected data and begin self-charging without human intervention. This technology can be used across a variety of applications and is useful when regular and repeatable operations or inspections are needed, especially in remote areas.
For autonomous flight to become a reality, there will need to be a significant investment in surface infrastructure, including unmanned traffic management (UTM) systems and communication networks. Ground stations will need to receive data from each aerial vehicle communicating identification, location, direction, and speed. The scale of the hardware needed to accommodate autonomous flight and BVLOS operations will depend on the number of UAS and the area in which they operate. For example, a small number of UAS operating in a rural area may only need a few ground stations. However, many UAS operating in a congested urban area may require a more extensive network of ground stations.
Some of the challenges that need to be addressed to develop effective communication networks for autonomous flight and BVLOS operations are:
- Bandwidth: The communication networks will need to have enough bandwidth to support the large amount of data that will be generated by autonomous and BVLOS aircraft.
- Latency: The communication networks will need to have low latency so that UAS can receive and respond to commands in real time.
- Security: The communication networks will need to be secure to protect against hacking and other threats.
State governments can play a key role in preparing for autonomous and BVLOS operations by investing in surface infrastructure, such as vertiports, UTM systems, and ground communication networks. State agencies can start working with specific industry partners to promote the safe and responsible use of autonomous and BVLOS technologies. These potential roles are explored in more detail in Chapter 9: Roles and Responsibilities.
A growing trend is leveraging UAS technology for package deliveries; this use of the technology falls under the AAM umbrella. UAS package deliveries are considered an AAM use case because, rather than using UAS as a data collection tool, the technology is enabling new markets with
emerging aviation technology. This use case is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 3: Use Cases and Applications for UAS and AAM.
AAM Technology Trends
As noted in the introduction, AAM is an umbrella term encompassing various innovations and technologies that enable new air transportation use cases. These applications are largely encompassed by other terms, such as UAM and RAM, and these use cases will be further explored in Chapter 3: Use Cases and Applications for UAS and AAM. An overview of electric propulsion, hydrogen technology, and leading aircraft integrating these technologies is provided in this section.
Electrification goals differ in scale, ranging from short-range, smaller aircraft to large, long-haul airliners. According to Emmanouil (2020) in his work Reliability in the Era of Electrification in Aviation: A Systems Approach, these different degrees of electrification are directly tied to the amount of electrical power providing thrust to the aircraft; hybrid propulsion systems would still include a gas engine or fuel cell while all-electric designs depend on electrical energy storage. Figure 3 provides a depiction of different types of propulsion systems.
A review of some of the leading aircraft and electric propulsion systems shows the progress and trajectory of electric aviation. It is important to note that AAM aircraft are subject to the robust certification and inspection policies and procedures of the FAA. Although the ultimate aim is to achieve entirely emissions-free aviation, the present phase acts as a transitional period for further research and technological development needed to scale up to larger aircraft. Some companies are utilizing existing certified airframes that have been modified with alternative propulsion systems (Organ 2022). The Harbour Air E-Beaver is a union of proven legacy technology and the new, emerging technology: the DeHavilland Beaver aircraft was released in 1947 and produced for 20 years (Marsh and Baker 2006). The E-Beaver is the same proven airframe, now powered by a 750 horsepower magniX electric propulsion unit coupled with an H55 battery
Figure 3. Overview of propulsion systems.
pack. Because no changes have been made to the certificated airframe, certification of the electric powerplant and battery system is being pursued through a supplemental type certificate program (Harbour Air Seaplanes 2021). The amount of time it takes to successfully complete this type of certification using already proven aircraft is much shorter, ranging from three to five years, versus the five- to nine-year process for new aircraft certification (FAA 2019).
The magniX electric propulsion unit technology was featured not only in the E-Beaver but also successfully integrated into a Cessna Grand Caravan 208B during the summer of 2020. This achievement resulted in the world’s largest all-electric aircraft designed for commercial use (magniX 2024a). magniX was also selected as the electric powerplant provider by Eviation, which is working on a nine-seat aircraft seeking certification by 2024 (magniX 2024b). In September 2021, magniX was recognized for its accomplishments and was awarded more than $74 million by NASA to enable its continued research on providing reliable electric propulsion systems (NASA 2021).
Two additional examples of existing airframes paired with new technology are the BAe 146 and the Piper Malibu. The BAe 146, a four-engine short-haul airliner developed by British Aerospace, first entered service in 1983 (Birtles 2016). The Wright company intends to convert the BAe 146 by replacing all four engines with electric propulsion, aiming to have the electric version of this popular regional aircraft ready for service by 2026 (Wright Electric 2022). Another notable example is the ZeroAvia Piper Malibu, which became the world’s first all-hydrogen-powered aircraft in the summer of 2020 (ZeroAvia 2020). This aircraft has served as a test platform for the company’s broader objective of scaling hydrogen propulsion to larger aircraft capable of carrying between 20 and 100 passengers (ZeroAvia 2020).
Retrofitting proven aircraft with advanced propulsion systems is a crucial step toward fully electric aircraft, such as eVTOLs from Joby and Archer, as well as new conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL) designs like the Eviation Alice and the Heart Aerospace ES-19. The ZeroAvia Piper hydrogen program, in particular, provides a strong research foundation for future advancements across the aviation sector, which could pave the way for new aircraft designs as envisioned by Airbus (Organ 2022). Airbus is exploring three different hydrogen-powered aircraft models, aiming to develop planes that can carry 100 to 200 passengers over distances of up to 2,000 miles (Airbus 2024). In February 2022, as part of the Airbus ZEROe initiative, the company announced that the original A380, known as MSN1, would be used as a test platform for hydrogen technology. Airbus emphasized that the A380’s large size makes it well-suited to accommodate hydrogen tanks, fuel distribution systems, and monitoring equipment as these technologies are developed and refined (Airbus 2022).
For decades, hydrocarbon fuels such as Jet A and 100LL have been the preferred energy sources for aviation due to their high energy density of 11,900 watt-hours per kilogram (Harrar 2021). Despite their energy efficiency, these fuels come with significant financial and environmental costs. Fuel expenses are one of the largest expenditures for airlines, second only to labor costs (Rodrigue 2020).
Electric aircraft have the potential to eliminate direct combustion emissions associated with traditional propulsion systems (Schäfer et al. 2018). However, while electric propulsion represents a significant advance, the cleanliness of the stored electric energy depends on the method of generation (WSP et al. 2020). The aviation industry is also known for its high noise levels, and companies developing hybrid and all-electric aircraft are also focused on significantly reducing noise pollution.
The anticipated cheaper hourly operating costs are also a benefit that commercial operations aircraft will experience. An advantage of electric propulsion systems is their ability to convert about 90 percent of stored energy into kinetic energy, only losing 10 percent to heat and noise.
This high conversion allows these various eVTOL and electronic conventional takeoff and landing (eCTOL) aircraft to be viable on routes up to about 1,000 miles (Swanson et al. 2021). Due to the comparatively low number of moving parts in the more simplistic electric motors, another potential operational savings will come from the reduced expected maintenance (Schäfer et al. 2018). These lower operating costs open the door for new routes on a regional basis. This topic will be discussed in Chapter 3 in the “Regional Air Mobility” section.
Despite the many benefits and advancements of electric aviation, significant obstacles remain. Some of the key propulsion challenges are the weight of the batteries, heat created by the superconducting electric motors, and meeting the established safety and reliability standards required for certification (Madavan 2016). Although battery technology is improving, there are still concerns about the battery capacity, charging time, and how these relate to range and route demand (WSP et al. 2020). These battery limitations currently limit the range of these aircraft, which can impact aircraft utilization and business operating models. Additionally, there is currently a lack of standards for pilot training for eVTOLs, charging standards, and emergency response to electric aircraft at airports. Although these and many other obstacles exist, the aviation industry is on a trajectory toward more mature electric or hydrogen propulsion technology that will enable the goals of a more environmentally safe and sustainable aviation system.
AAM Use Cases and Opportunities
In 2018, NASA commissioned several pioneering market studies (Reiche et al. 2018; Crown Consulting et al. 2019) of potential AAM use cases, including:
- Last-mile drone package delivery.
- Air metro service, which resembles current transit options, such as subways, with pre-set routes and stops (average of three passengers per trip).
- Air taxi service (average of one passenger per trip).
- Airport shuttle service.
- Air ambulance service.
The viability levels of these potential use cases vary based on technology, location, existing regulations, market demand, and other factors. Since these initial NASA studies, a variety of other organizations and companies have completed studies outlining potential AAM use cases and opportunities. The rendering shown in Figure 4 was shared at the inaugural meeting of the NASA AAM Ecosystem Working Groups to show different use cases that could exist in an AAM ecosystem.
The next chapter will delve deeper into some of the practical applications and opportunities that these innovations described earlier present. The UAS and AAM industry is trending upward as the maturity of UAS programs at state DOTs increases and technology and regulations for UAS and AAM applications advance. The rapid progression of enabling technologies in the UAS and AAM industries has opened a myriad of possibilities across various sectors.
Figure 4. NASA depiction of the AAM ecosystem.
