A
Abstract reasoning test, 64, 65
Accountability
automation and, 137-138
FAA organizational structure and, 161-162
leadership issues, 162
Advanced automation system, 215, 249
Age restrictions, 68
Air route traffic control center, 78-79, 82
responsibilities, 19-21
Air safety system enhancement team, 141
Air traffic activity data system, 156
Air Traffic Control Academy, 55
Air Traffic Control System Command Center, 21, 33
responsibilities, 49
Air traffic operations management system, 156
Air Traffic Services, 32-33, 52
in restoration of equipment, 81-82, 185-186
Air traffic teamwork enhancement, 6
curriculum, 146-147
limitations, 147-148
origins and development, 145
Air traffic workload input technique, 209
Airborne automatic conflict warning system, 235
Aircraft identification
automation systems, 254-255
tower control resources for, 35-36
Aircraft situation display, 49
Airport design
future prospects, 22-23
limits to utilization, 22
Airport operations oversight, 33
Airport surface detection equipment, 35
Airway Facilities
acquisition and development practices, 187-188, 233
automation effects, 177-180, 195
automation trends, 178
certification activities, 76-77, 80, 183-184
consumers of services, 76
employee satisfaction in, 190-191, 196
future prospects, 179-180, 195
human factors activities in, 9-10
human factors research, 191-194
maintenance control centers, 78-79, 81, 180-181, 187, 233
monitoring and control operations, 78
organizational structure, 78-79, 82
responsibilities, 76-77, 79-80, 87, 183
restoration of equipment, 81-82, 185-186
staff demographics, 84, 88, 179, 188
staff performance evaluations, 86
supervisory control, 181-182
systems approach, 83-84
systems model for assessment, recruitment, and training, 194
teamwork in, 186
workload, 186-187
Airway Facilities specialists, 82
for automation, 83-84, 87, 182-183
equipment, 9-10
performance assessment, 189
staffing trends, 178-179
training, 188-189
Anticipatory clearances, 203
Arrivals and departures
aircraft holding procedures, 49
anticipatory clearances, 203
approach sequencing/ghosting, 260-261
challenges for TRACON controllers, 42-43
communications system for, 36-37
constraints to airport efficiency, 21-22
ground traffic management, 35, 37
peak hours, 42
prospects for improving efficiency, 22-23
radar technology, 35-36
tower control responsibilities, 34-35
track deviation alert, 259
TRACON responsibilities, 37-38
ARTS. See Automated radar terminal system
Assessment and evaluation
of air traffic control efficiency, 2-3, 157-158
of air traffic control safety, 2-3, 155-157
of cognitive aptitude of candidates for training, 64-67
human engineering criterion measures, 223-224
incident analysis, 201-204
monitoring of automated systems, 277
of personality characteristics of candidates for training, 67-68
physiological measures, 207-209
real-time monitoring, 56
subjective reports, 204-205
workload drivers, 118-120
See also Performance assessment
Automated radar terminal system (ARTS), 38, 253, 260
failure of, 44
team interaction effects, 149
visual display, 39-42
workload reduction, 123
Automation
accomplishments, 241
accountability and, 137-138
aircraft conflict detection, 259-260
aircraft data block overlap, 256
aircraft guidance systems, 263
aircraft identification systems, 254-255
aircraft operations monitoring, 255-256
Airway Facilities activities, 177-181, 182-183
alerting devices, 258-259
approach sequencing/ghosting, 260-261
authority and autonomy in, 246-247
cockpit, 23-25, 28-29, 242, 251, 262-265, 267
for cognitive support, 178
communication technology, 256
computer assistance concept, 246
computerization and, 182-183, 195
contributors to, 251
cost-benefit analysis, 266-268
current implementation, 250-251, 288
current research, 261-265
data smoothing, 254
definition, 18, 182-183, 195, 243-244
degradation of situation awareness, 278-279
efficiency goals, 250
electronic flight strips, 261-262
employee attitudes, 171-172
equipment certification, 184
FAA goals, 249-250
false alarms, 260, 263, 264, 272, 273-276
flight crew attitudes, 149-150
flight data management, 253-254
flight service stations, 51-52
flows and slots management, 261
forms of, 244
handoff system, 256
historic failures of, 28-29
human component, 241-242
human performance effects, 13, 242, 268
implications for controller selection, 68-69
implications for teamwork, 148-150
implications of, 242-243
information displays, 258
information-sharing, 139-140
interactions between factors affecting use of, 279-280
limitations, 241-242
management system for, 152
modernization and, 182-183, 195, 249
navigation aids, 257-258
need for, 248-250
new error forms in response to, 265-266, 269-270
overreliance effects, 276-278
perceived reliability, 272
pilot perspective, 23-25
preflight programming, 24
safety concerns, 17-18
safety goals, 249-250
skill degradation effects, 277-278
sources of problems, 267
track deviation signals, 259
user mistrust, 273-276
user monitoring of, 277
vigilance and, 129-130
workload effects, 122-123, 133-134, 270-271
Automation, human-centered, 12-13
human authority in, 281-282
human empowerment in, 282-283
implementation prospects, 287-288
job satisfaction goals, 282
operator awareness in, 283-284
operator trust in, 283
optimal control design, 284
organizational structure for, 284
origins of, 266-267
supervisory architecture, 285-287
task allocation in, 281
tolerance of nonstandard behavior in, 284
vs. technology-centered, 265-266
Automation specialist. See GS-2101 automation specialist
Aviation safety reporting system, 28, 156, 157, 203
C
Center-TRACON automation system, 12, 221, 262
Certification and licensure
air traffic control specialists, 55
Airway Facilities activities, 76-77, 80, 183-184
for full-performance-level controllers, 71
oversight, 33
service, 80
system/subsystem, 80
Civil Aeromedical Institute, 60, 66, 172
Cockpit resource management, 27
determinants of success, 143-144
future requirements, 144-145
implementation in air traffic control, 145
origins and development, 143
teamwork, 6
Cognitive functioning
adaptive flexibility, 98-99
attention processes, 94
attentional resources, 97-98
automation support for, 178
compensation for vulnerabilities of, 4-5
controller error, 103-105, 108
for controller tasks, 92
decision-making, 96, 102-103, 107-108
demands on controllers, 4
expectancy and, 94, 99-100, 105-106
implications for system design, 105-111
implications of proposed automation, 68-69
information monitoring, 97
knowledge-based behavior, 97-98
language of incident analysis, 203-204
long-term memory processes, 95-97, 101-102, 107
management strategies, 96-97
mental models of automated devices, 204-205, 276
organizational mediators, 166
physiological correlates, 207-209
recognition of vulnerability to stress, 142-143
resource allocation, 96-97
response to external events, 92-94
screening of controller candidates, 64-67, 69
for secondary tasks, 206-207
simulator training, 73
situation awareness, 95, 100-101, 106-107
subjective assessments of controller performance, 204-205
task analysis, 92
vulnerabilities in controller tasks, 99-105
work shift rotations and, 131-132
working memory, 94-95, 100, 106
workload assessments, 206-207
workload of vigilance, 125-130 See also Decision-making processes;
Information processing
Collegiate training initiative, 70
Collision avoidance systems, 24, 27, 139-140, 149, 264-265, 274
Communication, interpersonal. See Interpersonal communications
Communications technology between air traffic control centers, 21
automated systems, 256
datalink systems, 257
historic failures of, 25-27, 29
national flow control, 50-51
oversight, 33
responsibility for control and maintenance, 77
tower control resources, 36-37
TRACON, 43-44
verbal redundancy design, 106
Computer-oriented metering planning and advisory system, 212
Confidential human incident reporting programme, 203
Conflict management, 146-147
Consumers, 21-22
of Airway Facilities services, 76
Controller awareness and resource training, 145
Controller error
data collection, 222-223
error rate, 59
examples of controller-pilot miscommunication, 138-140
generalizability of human factors studies, 201
implications for systems design, 103-104, 108
incident analysis, 201-202
information processing model, 201-202
predictive modeling, 213
reporting systems for, 203-204
research methodology, 222
team accountability for communications errors, 137-138
technology-centered prevention, 265-266
time on shift as risk factor, 130-131
types of, 104-105
Controller performance
high-reliability organization context, 154
implications of automation, 242
legal liability, 164
in low workload conditions, 140
measures of, 223-225
organizational context variables, 159, 166, 175
primary-task measures, 206
recognition of vulnerability to stress, 142-143
research needs, 225
secondary-task measures, 206-207
sleep disruption effects, 131
subjective assessments, 204-205
time-on-shift effects, 130-131
vigilance effects, 125, 127-129
work-rest schedules and, 130
work shift rotations and, 131-132
workload effects, 114-116, 123-124
Controller skills
adaptive flexibility, 98-99
cognitive vulnerabilities, 99-105
flight plan specialists, 52
implications of proposed automation, 68-69
job duties and responsibilities, 62-63
long-term memory functions for, 95-96, 101-102
personal qualities, 67-68
replacement of striking controllers in 1981, 54
for safety-efficiency balance, 23
Crew resource management, 138
introduction of, 27
origins and development, 143
research findings, 142-143
Critical incident technique, 221
Current air traffic control system
Airway Facilities operations, 9-10, 179
automation implementation, 250-251
baseline system, 30-31
communications within, 21
compatibility with new technology, 248-249
controller aptitude tests, 64-67
efficiency goals, 22-23
equipment variation, 177-178, 180-181
error rate, 59
flight service stations, 51-52
flow control, 48-51
human factors activities in, 31
human factors design in, 231-235
job satisfaction in, 168-171
management model, 153-155
modeling techniques, 213-214
national flow control, 48-51
operations, 19-21
organizational functioning, 7-8, 52-53, 153-155
reliability, 2
safety goals, 21-22
significant events in development of, 25-30
stakeholders, 152-153
training of controllers, 3, 55
work schedules, 6
D
Datalink, 149
goals, 257
modeling responses, 214
operational implications, 257
Decision-making processes
automation support for, 178
collaborative process, 103
recognition of vulnerability to stress, 142-143
system design considerations, 108
training considerations, 108
See also Cognitive functioning;
Information processing
Deregulation, 27-28
Design process
consideration of local conditions, 239
error-tolerant approach, 103-104
estimates of reliability, 18-19
FAA guide, 187-188
human-centered, 12-13
implications of cognitive vulnerabilities, 105-109
information resources, 10-11
prototyping, 215-216, 238-239, 240
real-time simulations in, 217-218
recommendations, 11-12
regional differences, 234
sequential experimentation protocol, 238-239
teamwork considerations, 148-149
technology-centered approach, 265-266
top-down approach, 239-240
user-centered, 266
user participation, 236-239, 240
See also Human factors design;
Systems acquisition and development
Developmental controllers, 55, 60, 70
performance reviews, 57-58
Digital brite, radar indicator tower equipment (DBRITE), 35-36
Disciplinary action, 164
E
Efficiency
air traffic control system goals, 21-23
aircraft holding procedures, 49
assessment and evaluation, 2-3, 157-158
automation goals, 249-250
definition, 157
demand for services and, 158
indicators, 157
monetary measures, 158
obstacles to, 22
pilot perspective, 23
policies and procedures, 159-161
prospects for improving, 22-23
Employee attitude survey, 8, 168-172, 176, 190-191
En route controllers
assessment, 56
cognitive skills, 4
in FAA organizational structure, 32, 33-34
flight data processing, 253
information resources, 45-46
nonradar areas management, 45
operations, 45
radar resources, 46
safety standards, 45
simulation training, 73
staff design, 45
TRACON control and, 48
traffic management activities, 46-48
use of flight strips, 46
Enhanced target generator, 73, 74
Envelope protection, 246-247
Equipment failures
employee attitudes, 171-172
human factors in, 191-192
responsibility for restoration, 81-82, 185-186
small, 185
TRACON response, 44
Equipment maintenance and control
centralized monitoring and control system, 78
certification procedures, 80, 183-184
conceptual trends, 178
human factors research, 192
maintenance control centers for, 78-79, 180-181
responsibility for, 76-77, 183
restoration to service, 81-82, 185-186
workload, 186-187
See also Equipment failures
effects on perception, 99-100
Eye movement, 208
F
FAA. See Federal Aviation Administration
Facility flight check, 156
False alarms
collision avoidance system, 264
flight path conflict detection, 260
ground proximity warning, 263
mistrust of automated systems, 273
threshold setting, 273-276
user response, 272
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
acquisition and development practices, 12
in air traffic control system management model, 153-155
automation goals, 249-250
cockpit resource management policy, 144-145
constituents and interested parties, 152-153
controller selection and training, 3-4, 55
employee attitude survey, 8, 176, 190-191
future challenges, 153
human factors design guide, 187-188, 195-196
human factors management, 9, 172-174, 176, 232
human factors policy, 173, 231-235
human factors research, 10, 192-194
job satisfaction in, 168-171
labor-management relations, 164-166
organizational functioning, 7-8
organizational structure, 32-34, 52, 161-163
personnel policies, 163-166, 176
promotion of team training, 6-7
proposed acquisition reforms, 234-235
safety/efficiency assessments, 2-3, 158
safety/efficiency policies and procedures, 159-161
system design philosophy, 2
Feedback control, 244
Field research
applications, 220-221
combined research, 222
limitations, 222
validity, 223
Final approach spacing tool, 212
Flight data input/output computer system, 37, 38
Flight deck operations
automation, 23-25, 242, 251, 262-265, 267
historic failures of, 28-29
leadership style, 142
preflight programming, 24
team training for, 143-145
See also Pilot behavior
Flight level monitoring, 255
Flight management system (FMS), 263
mode confusion, 269-270
principles of operation, 23-24
Flight plans
automated conflict detection, 259-260
automated guidance, 263
automated monitoring, 253-254
daily planning for central flow control, 49
en route adjustments, 47-48
flight service station services, 51-52
HOST system identification, 45-46
specialists, 52
tower control responsibilities, 35
visual displays, 121
Flight service stations, 33-34
automated systems, 51-52
reform plans, 52
responsibility for equipment, 77
services of, 51
Flight strips, 36, 42, 46, 53, 253-254
electronic, 261-262
Flow control
central decision-making, 50-51
daily operations, 49-50
determinants of, 48
goals, 48
local/sectoral decision-making, 49-50
resources for, 49
techniques, 49
Full-performance-level controllers, 55, 60
requirements, 71
responsibilities, 56
G
Ghosting, 260-261
Global positioning system, 258
Great circle route, 23
Ground controllers
See also Tower controllers
Ground proximity warning system, 27, 263
Ground traffic
flow control, 49
management pressures, 37
pilot-controller communications, 121
responsibility for, 35
GS-2101 automation specialist, 10, 83-84, 87, 183, 186, 188-189, 196
H
Handoff communications, 21, 35, 36-37, 256
procedure, 43-44
TRACON responsibilities, 37
Hear back problem, 99-100
High-reliability organizations, 154-155, 167
HOST computer system, 45-46, 49, 51, 77
team interaction effects, 149
Human-centered automation. See Automation, human-centered
Human factors activities
in Airway Facilities, 9-10, 191-194
costs of automation, 268
in current air traffic control system, 31
FAA management of, 9, 172-175, 176, 232
FAA policy, 173
historic failures of air traffic control system, 25-30
incident analysis, 201-202
in organizational functioning, 160
research goals, 18
research methodology, 31
research simulations, 218
strategies for research, 10-11, 198-199
training considerations, 144
Human factors design
for Airway Facilities equipment, 187-188
combining research data for, 222-223
contributions of, 228-229, 240
current implementation, 231-235
field studies for, 220
generalizability of research, 200-201, 224
goals, 2
historical development, 227-229
human-machine interface, 187, 219-220
knowledge base, 10-11, 199-200, 228
limitations of research, 200-201
measurement issues, 223-225
modeling techniques for, 210
modes of, 226-227
opportunities for improvement, 110-111
procurement practices, 229-230, 240
professional development, 230-231
prototyping, 215-216
trade-offs, 109
user participation in, 215
See also Automation, human-centered;
Human factors activities
I
Incident analysis, 201-202, 222
Information management for central flow control, 49-50
data collection for incident analysis, 202
data collection for modeling, 214
data collection in simulations, 219-220
at en route centers, 45-46
flight data, 253-254
in human-centered automation, 283-284
human factors research needs, 10-11
individual reporting behavior, 157
measurement in complex systems, 223-225
monitoring activities, 97
pilot-controller interface, 149
responsibility for equipment, 77
safety data collection systems, 156-157, 163, 203-204
videotaped records, 205
Information processing
causes of operator error, 201-202
controller actions, 92-94
controller error, 103-105
demands on controllers, 92
design considerations, 109-110
long-term memory, 95-97, 101-102
working memory functions, 94-95, 100
See also Cognitive functioning;
Decision-making processes
Integrated product teams, 234
Interpersonal communications
air traffic teamwork enhancement program, 146-147
automation effects, 148-150
challenges for TRACON controllers, 43
controller vulnerabilities, 101
cultural differences, 138-139
employee satisfaction and, 8, 170, 190, 191
examples of controller-pilot interface, 138-140
field studies, 220-221
group process model, 136-137
hear back problem, 99-100
implications of datalink systems, 257
implications of proposed automation, 68-69
individual vs. team accountability, 137-138
leadership style, 142
limits of working memory, 106
nonlinguistic cues, 107
organizational context, 163, 166-167
power relations in, 139
readback, 43
shared assumptions/knowledge in, 101, 139-140, 149
as source of operator error, 202
system redundancy, 106
team-related research, 140-143
for teamwork, 6
visual displays and, 149
willingness to challenge decisions of others, 143, 170
as workload factors, 121
See also Communications technology
J
Job Performance Measurement project, 62
Job satisfaction, 8, 168-171, 176, 190-191, 196
L
Labor relations, 164-166
Leadership
accountability, 162
adaptive flexibility, 155
in high-stress situations, 155
styles, 142
team preferences, 142
See also Management
Legal issues
controller liability, 164
equipment certification, 184
Line oriented flight training, 144, 145, 148
Local controllers
See also Tower controllers
M
Maintenance control centers, 78-79, 81, 180-181, 187, 233
Management
acceptance of new technology, 236
air traffic control system management model, 153-155
assessment for decision-making, 56-59
credibility, 160-161
employee attitudes, 8
of equipment and systems, 181-182
FAA human factors activities, 9, 172-174
FAA labor relations, 164-166
FAA organizational structure, 32-34, 161-163
for implementation of automation, 152
implications of Airway Facilities employee survey, 190-191
organizational responsibilities, 158
See also Leadership
Manpower and Personnel Integration (MANPRINT), 230, 231
Minimum safe altitude warning, 27, 38, 42, 259
Model I Full Capacity, 51
Modeling
analytic, 211
applications, 210-212
challenges to, 212-213
complexity of, 212-213
current practice, 213-214
data sources, 214
for error prediction, 213
fast-time vs. real-time, 212
of human factors, 213
limitations, 214
for operational support, 212
outputs, 211
for policy analysis, 211
for product acquisition and development, 12
research needs, 225
research value, 210
safety-efficiency interactions, 175
workload effects, 116-118
See also Simulators/simulations
Multiplex controller aptitude test, 64, 65, 66, 69
Mutual design and implementation, 238
N
NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX), 209
National Air Traffic Controllers Association, 164-166
National airspace information monitoring system, 156
National airspace system, 79, 82
National airspace system performance analysis capability, 213
National airspace system simulation model, 213
National data airspace interchange network, 51
National Maintenance Coordination Center, 81
National route plan, 23
Navigations technology
automation, 257-258
oversight, 33
New technology
for airport efficiency, 22-23
for Airway Facilities operations, 9
challenges to system-wide introduction, 53
controller training for, 71-72
FAA research and development structure, 33
lack of integration, 177-178, 180-181, 187, 195, 233
organizational functioning and, 8, 174-175
simulation testing, 218
terminology, 18
trends, 178
user acceptance, 235-236, 273-276
user participation in design and implementation, 236-239
O
Occupational knowledge test, 64
Office of Technology Assessment, 161-163
Operational control centers, 178, 193
Operations network, 156
Organizational functioning/structure acceptance of new technology, 235-236
adaptive flexibility, 155
air traffic control system management model, 153-155
communications policy, 163
communications style, 166-167
controller performance and, 159, 175
current air traffic control system, 52-53
determinants of, 7
effects of, 7-8
employee satisfaction with, 8, 168-171
formal context, 158
high-reliability organization, 154-155, 167
for human-centered automation, 284
human factors in, 160
implementation of teamwork concepts, 144
incident analysis, 202
informal context variables, 166-172, 175-176
introduction of new technology, 8, 174-175
management responsibilities, 158
managing human factors activities within FAA, 9, 172-174
as organizational culture, 7
research needs, 8
response to communication of problems, 167
safety outcomes and, 156
subcultures, 167-168
team performance in air traffic control, 135-137
Overseas flights, 21
nonradar areas, 45
P
Perceptual functioning, 69
design considerations, 110
determinants of, 94
display overload, 120-121
expectation effects, 99-100
hear back problem, 99-100
situation awareness, 95, 100-101
Performance assessment Airway Facilities technician, 84, 86, 189
checklists, 57-58
controller, 3-4
controller selection and training, 55
crew resource management, 142-143
current research efforts, 63, 193-194
employee satisfaction with, 170-171, 191
goals for training program, 74-75
implications of automation, 68-69
for management decision-making, 56-59
minority sensitivity, 63
models for, 3
objective measures for, 58
operational assessment program, 56-57
selection criteria, 60-63
simulators for, 58-59
strategies for research, 10-11
for teams, 163-164
Performance-preference dissociations, 216
Personality traits, 67-68
Physical plant, 77
Physiological stress measurement, 207-209
Pilot behavior
controller communications, 121
examples of controller-pilot interface, 138-140
modeling techniques, 214
overreliance on automation, 276-278
recognition of vulnerability to stress, 142-143
TRACON communications, 43
See also Flight deck operations
Plan view display radar, 46, 120-121
Preflight actions, 24
Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization, 70
Prototyping
limitations, 216
for product acquisition and development, 11, 12, 238-239, 240
research needs, 225
Q
Quality through partnership process, 165-166, 170
R
Radar, 229
en route center resources, 46
en route traffic control, 45
nonradar areas, 45
responsibility for equipment, 77
tower control resources, 35-36
TRACON resources, 38-42
vigilance effects on use of, 127-128
visual display, 39-42
visual sampling, 99
Radar positive control system, 25
Radio telephony, 121
design implications, 234
obstacles to performance assessment, 58, 59
as organizational subculture, 167-168
in simulations, 59
Reliability
of air traffic control system, 2
definition, 18
measures of, 18
problems in estimating, 18-19
trust and, 19
Remote monitoring subsystem, 78
Research methodology, 31
combining data sources, 222-223
data collection for incident analysis, 202, 203-204
efficiency measures, 157
field studies, 220-222
generalizability of human factors studies, 200-201, 224
for human error research, 222-223
human factors literature, 199-200, 201
incident analysis, 201-202
limitations of human factors studies, 201
measurement in complex systems, 223-225
modeling techniques, 210-214
needs for air traffic control research, 225
prototyping, 215-216
real-time simulation, 216-220
requirements, 197
resources for, 197
safety analysis, 157
strategies for human factors studies, 198-199
teamwork studies, 137
use of subjective assessments, 204-205
for workload assessment, 205-210
S
Safe Skies for Tomorrow, 161-163
Safety
air traffic control system goals, 21-22
analytical procedures, 157
assessment, 2-3
automation goals, 249-250
concerns about automation, 17-18
cost-effective risk assessment, 159
data sources, 156-157, 163, 203-204
efficiency and, 159-160
high-reliability organizations for, 154-155
historic failures of air traffic control system, 25-30
indicators in air traffic control, 155-156
organizational risk factors, 156
performance assessments and, 164
policies and procedures, 159-161
pressures for efficiency and, 21-22
separation between aircraft, 21
workload considerations, 133
Security, 33
Separation and control hiring assessment program, 62
Separation between aircraft, 21
approach sequencing/ghosting, 260-261
challenges for controllers, 37-38
en route standards, 45
need for automation, 248
in nonradar areas, 45
technology introduction, 235
TRACON responsibilities, 37-38
TRACON standards, 37
Sequential experimentation protocol, 238-239
SIMMOD, 213
Simulators/simulations
applications, 217-218
combined research, 222-223
constraints on data collection, 219-220
for controller assessment, 58-59
current research, 73-74
for design process, 217-218
fast-time, 212
features, 211
for human factors research, 218
with local features, 59
part-task training, 73
rationale, 216-217
recommendations for utilization, 11
regional air traffic control system, 217
research applications, 211
research needs, 225
validity, 223
See also Modeling
Situation assessment through re-creation of incidents, 4, 120
Situation awareness, 95, 100-101, 106-107, 140
overreliance on automation, 278-279
Sleep loss, 131
Social learning theory, 72-73
Stacking aircraft, 22
Staff design
en route center, 45
flexibility in, 44
flight service stations, 52
replacement of striking controllers in 1981, 54
TRACON, 44
Strike of 1981
outcomes, 28
Subjective assessments
in design prototyping, 216
limitations, 205
performance-preference dissociations, 216
research value, 204-205
for workload assessment, 209-210
Subjective workload assessment technique, 209
Surveillance technology oversight, 33
TRACON resources, 38
System maintenance control center, 79
Systems acquisition and development, 11-12
for Airways Facilities, 187-188, 233
controller training, 71-72
FAA human factors policy, 173
FAA organizational structure for, 33
human factors research support for, 173, 174
incorporation of human factors in, 12, 229-230, 240
maintenance of predecessor designs, 233
performance-preference dissociations, 216
proposed reforms for FAA, 234-235
standardization in, 181
user participation in, 12, 236-239
workload certification, 116
T
Teamwork
accountability, 137-138
in air traffic control system, 135-136
air traffic teamwork enhancement program, 145-148
in Airway Facilities, 186
automation effects, 148-150
communication for, 6
crew resource management, 142-143
determinants of, 136
examples of controller-pilot communications, 138-140
flight deck, 143-145
group process model, 136-137
high workload strategies, 141
for human factors design, 227-228
leadership style, 142
low workload conditions, 140
performance assessment, 163-164
research findings, 140-143
strategies for improving, 6-7, 150-151
subcultures, 136
team members, 135
Terminal airspace simulation facility, 218
Terminal radar control area (TRACON)
cognitive skills of controllers, 4
communications system, 43-44
crisis management, 44
en route control and, 48
equipment failures, 44
in FAA organizational structure, 32, 33-34
obstacles to traffic management, 42-43
physical environment, 44
responsibilities, 19, 34-35, 37-38, 286
staffing, 44
use of flight strips, 38-42
Textbooks, 199-200
Time-line analysis, 117
Total Airport and Airspace Modeler, 213
Total systems design, 228
Tower controllers
communications system, 36-37
in FAA organizational structure, 32, 33-34
responsibilities, 19, 34-35, 286
simulation training, 73
use of flight strips, 36
TRACON. See Terminal radar control area
Traffic alert and collision avoidance system, 24, 264-265
controller-pilot interface and, 139-140, 149
introduction of, 27
Traffic management advisor, 213, 221
Traffic management coordinators, 49
Train for success philosophy, 70
Training of Airway Facilities technicians, 85-86, 87-88, 178-179, 188-189
Training of controllers, 176
age limitations, 68
assessment methodology for, 55-56
attrition rate, 66
cognitive screening of candidates for, 64-67
conceptual approach, 70
controller performance related to, 72
current research efforts, 70
current tracking data, 60
decision making, 108
detection tasks in vigilance, 126
job-related criteria, 3-4
length of, 71
for new equipment, 71-72
opportunities for improvement, 110
performance measures as selection criteria, 60
personal characteristics of trainees, 67-68
prior experience requirements, 70
selection goals, 63
simulators for, 4, 70, 71, 73, 148
situated learning model, 72-73
sources of candidates, 70
subtask training, 73
team for, 70-71
for teamwork, 6-7, 141, 142, 148, 150
in equipment certification process, 184
false alarm effects, 273-276
human-centered automation objective, 283
management credibility with employees, 160-161
as organizational variable, 171-172
U
User-centered design, 266
V
VHF omnidirectional range, 45
Vigilance
air traffic control and, 127-129
arousal and, 126-127
current understanding, 125, 126-127
definition, 125
implications for automation, 129-130
task factors influencing, 125-126, 133
training effects, 126
Visual display
aircraft data block overlap, 256
aircraft flight level, 255
aircraft heading and speed, 255-256
aircraft situation, 49
approach sequencing/ghosting, 260-261
compatibility with cognitive processes, 204-205
data smoothing, 254
datalink systems, 257
effects on interpersonal communication, 149
flight path, 121
in human-centered automation, 283-284
informational scope, 258
workload factor, 120-121
Voice switching and control system, 18-19
W
Wake vortices, 22
individual differences in aircraft, 42
Weather
challenges for TRACON controllers, 42-43
constraints to airport efficiency, 22
flight services station services, 51-52
Work schedules
controller performance and, 130-133
current practice, 6, 130, 131, 133
night shift work, 131
potential problem areas, 48
shift changes, 48
sleep disruption effects, 131
time on shift as risk factor for error, 130-131
Workload
adaptive strategies, 115, 117-118
airspace load effects, 118-120
in Airway Facilities, 186-187
allocation of cognitive resources, 96-98
assessment measures, 205-206
assessment models, 5-6
automation effects, 122-123,133-134, 268, 270-271
communications factors, 121
controller performance and, 114-116, 123-124
definitions, 113-114
display factors, 120-121
extremes of, 5
interaction of factors in, 115, 133
modeling techniques, 214
multitask performance theories, 117, 122
as performance factor, 5
physiological measures, 207-209
primary-task measures, 206
research trends, 113
safety and, 133
secondary-task measures, 206-207
situation awareness and, 100-101, 140
subjective measures, 209-210
system trends, 34
system variation, 113
task load vs. mental workload, 124
team strategies, 141
theoretical models, 114, 116-118
time-line analysis, 117