Nature and Human Society: The Quest for a Sustainable World (1997)
Chapter: Liking Science and Policy: A Research Agenda for Colombian Biodiversity
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Linking Science and Policy:
A Research Agenda for Colombian Biodiversity
The close interaction between nature and human society has been the basis of life for cultures worldwide over many generations. Indigenous tribes, such as the Yukuna living along the Mirití River in the Colombian Amazonia, view their world as the conjunction of all biophysical, biological, and cultural elements. They have a “humanized” view of the forest, in which all the elements are closely connected, and they see themselves as the guardians of the spirits contained in plants, animals, and minerals (van der Hammen 1992).
In recent years, more and more people around the globe have been facing environmental problems as part of everyday life, and many of us have seen changes within our lifetimes. Access to clean water is increasingly difficult, the air in our cities is increasingly polluted, forests are being cut down, and some species are becoming increasingly rare or extinct (WRI 1996). As pressures on natural resources have increased and environmental degradation has become evident, public awareness has increased to an all-time high, and the interdependence of human society and our natural environment is widely accepted.
Environmental issues have become important in local, national, and international agendas, and decision-makers are facing the challenge of designing and implementing policies that achieve an adequate balance between environmental, economic, and social goals. Although much progress has been made in agriculture, transportation, and energy (Dower and others 1997), we are still seeing a steady decline in biological diversity worldwide.
One important reason for the decline is the gap that still exists between scientists and decision-makers. On the one hand, scientists are not providing the
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information that is required for the decision-making process at the right time or in the right language to be useful. On the other, decision-makers at all levels are not necessarily framing questions to scientists or providing the support that is needed to carry out research. In this paper, I describe the attempts made by scientists and decision-makers in Colombia to overcome this problem, and I present a research agenda for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
The Earth Summit and the Convention on Biological Diversity
In June 1992, leaders of over 100 countries gathered in Rio de Janeiro as part of the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the Earth Summit. It was by far the largest gathering of decision-makers from around the world to discuss environmental issuesa clear recognition that these themes do not recognize political boundaries but require international cooperation. The results of the conference include Agenda 21, a global plan to halt and reverse environmental damage to our planet and to promote environmentally sound and sustainable development in all countries (Sitarz 1994). In addition, three legally binding conventions were signedon biodiversity, climate change, and desertification.
The Convention on Biological Diversity has been ratified by 173 parties and has become a global framework for decision-makers (see Juma, this volume). The convention defines biological diversity as “the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part, this includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems” (UNEP 1994). The convention has three main objectives: the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable distribution of benefits derived from its use. The last objective is far-reaching, ambitious, and difficult to achieve, but it is essential for future sustainable development.
The organization of the convention includes the Conference of the Parties (the highest ranking body), in charge of decisions that are legally binding on all parties. It also has a Subsidiary Body for Scientific, Technical, and Technological Advice (SBSTTA), in charge of analyzing relevant information on issues defined by the Conference of the Parties and making recommendations that are then offered for adoption by decision-makers. This scheme is intended to bridge the gap between science and policy, and it has allowed progress to be made on such issues as coastal and marine biodiversity, agricultural biodiversity, and capacity-building for taxonomy.
Many parties to the convention have adopted measures for its implementation on a national level. Colombia has taken steps to implement the convention, and I will examine the measures taken to strengthen scientific research on biodiversity to provide a stronger basis for designing policy and monitoring its effects.
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The Biodiversity of Colombia
Colombia is among the countries with the richest biodiversity. With a land area of 1,140,000 km2 (about 0.7% of the continental surface of the globe), it is home to over 40,000 plant species, over 1,815 bird species, over 604 amphibian speciesmore than 10% of the species of any of these groups.
Colombia's enormous richness can be attributed to its geological history and location. Its location near the equator, as a land bridge between North America and South America, allowed the migration of species between the continents. Many species, such as the oaks (genus Quercus), are widespread in North America, are found in the higher-elevation forests in Central America, and are in forests in the Andes of Colombia as far south as the border with Ecuador.
The geological history of Colombia has also played an important role in speciation and diversification. The oldest rock formations in Colombia are parts of the Guyana shield and are found as giants standing over the plains of the Orinoco and parts of the Amazonian region of Colombia. The Andes are more recent and split into three distinct ranges, with the eastern range stretching as far north as Venezuela. The Pacific coast of Colombia, known as the Chocó, has one of the largest rainfallssome locations get more than 12,000 mm of rain annuallyand is separated from other lowland forests by the Andes. This complex geography gives rise to over 140 biogeographic zones (Jorge Hernandez Camacho, unpublished).
The Institutional Structure in Charge of Colombia's Biodiversity
The environmental sector in Colombia was restructured as a response to the commitments of the Convention on Biological Diversity, ratified by Colombia in 1994. The result is a series of institutions and organizations that are collectively known as the National Environmental System. The highest-ranking body is the National Environmental Council, which is made up of representatives of the different ministries and government agencies and of the private sector, universities, and the civil society. This body is in charge of establishing general policy guidelines and facilitates cross-sectoral coordination.
The restructuring also led to the creation of the Ministry of the Environment, as a small entity in charge of supervising environmental policy and representing Colombian positions in international conventions and treaties related to the environment. Environmental control and management are decentralized in the new system and are in charge of regional autonomous corporations for sustainable development.
Most important for the purpose of this paper are the research institutes that are in charge of providing the scientific and technical support to the environmental system. The institute in charge of biodiversity research, named after Alexander von Humboldt, was established in 1995 as a joint venture of 24 partners, including the Colombian Ministry of the Environment, the Colombian Science Foundation, universities, and nongovernment organizations. This innovative institutional
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approach was designed to bring together the skills and experience of the public and private sectors and to bridge the gap between science and policy. The institute's mission is to promote, coordinate, and carry out research that contributes to the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity in Colombia.
A Conceptual Framework for Biodiversity Research
The development of a biodiversity research strategy for Colombia requires a conceptual framework. The Convention on Biological Diversity itself has recognized several levels of organization, including genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity. Noss (1990) developed a useful framework to study biodiversity that recognizes those three levels of organization and three attributes that can be surveyed (composition, structure, and function). The result is a two-dimensional matrix that allows any combination of attributes at any level of organization.
In the framework presented by Noss (1990), composition refers to the identification of the components of biological diversity, such as species lists. Structure refers to the characterization of these components, including their relative abundance, for example, the types of ecosystems in a given area. By function, we mean the study of the dynamic nature of biodiversity in space and time, for example, monitoring allele frequency in a population over time or the effects of management practices on demography. It is not surprising that an analysis of biodiversity research over the last few decades shows that most work has been done on composition at the species level and very little on function at the genetic and ecosystem levels.
A helpful addition might be to include the human dimension and to evaluate the use of biodiversity at any level along a gradient of human intervention, from “pristine” habitats, through extractive systems, to highly transformed or even degraded areas. That would enable us to address such matters as the impact of logging on genetic diversity of nontimber forest products or the effects of wetland restoration on ecosystem services.
A Strategic Agenda for Biodiversity Research in Colombia
The strategic plan for research in biodiversity in Colombia is designed to address the conceptual framework as a whole, identify gaps and weaknesses, and design actions to overcome them. The plan, developed in collaboration with 100 institutions and scientists nationwide, has six main objectives:
• to continue the inventory of biological diversity;
• to provide the scientific basis for the conservation of biodiversity;
• to develop new ways to use and value biodiversity;
• to study the effects of cross-sectoral policies and legislation on the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity;
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• to strengthen the national capacity to carry out scientific research and promote international cooperation; and
• to design ways to disseminate the results of research, especially to decision-makers.
Biodiversity Inventories
Although biological inventories have been carried out for the last 2 centuries, we still have little information on what biodiversity we have and where it is. Most of the biological collecting done since the journeys of Alexander von Humboldt and the botanical expedition led by Jose Celestino Mutis in the early 19th century has focused on vascular plants and vertebrates, especially birds and mammals. Invertebrates, fungi, and bacteria have received little attention, and overall we estimate that we probably know less than 10% of the species found in Colombia (figure 1). Research related to characterization at the genetic level is scarce, except for some species of importance for agriculture and health, although the cost and speed of molecular techniques are making these increasingly available to researchers worldwide.
The Alexander von Humboldt Institute has completed an exercise to determine the high-priority geographic areas for biodiversity inventories through a series of workshops involving leading scientists. The criteria to evaluate geographic priorities include species richness, endemism, current state of knowledge, and degree of threat, including such variables as extent of original habitat left, degree of fragmentation, rate of change, and existence of protected areas. Use of those criteria has led to the identification of areas that have top priority, primarily those with a
Figure 1
Estimated percentage of known species in taxonomic groups in Colombia.
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combination of high diversity, high endemism, poor knowledge, and high degree of threat. The resulting maps are used to establish a set of geographic priorities that are used by institutions nationwide for inventories (Samper 1997).
In the research plan, the strengthening of biological collections nationwide and the repatriation of information to Colombia are very important. The 29 biological collections in the country house an estimated 1.7 million specimens. However, the collections are not always adequately curated, taxonomic identification is not always reliable, and the information is not readily available for studies in biogeography. Therefore, an important step is to support the exchange of material with national and international specialists and institutions, and a major effort is under way to computerize all collections in Colombia by the year 2000. An additional step is to establish agreements for the repatriation of information housed in museums and other biological collections abroad.
Conservation Biology
A second major line of work is related to research that directly contributes to the conservation of biological diversity at all levels. Research should address the direct causes of extinction, namely, habitat transformation, overexploitation, competition with alien species, and pollution and climate change (Heywood1995).
Research related to conservation should focus on a better understanding of the current status, monitoring, and trends of biological diversity, with emphasis on endangered or threatened taxa or habitats. Preliminary results of this work have resulted in a complete list of threatened plants of Colombia, including 620 species so far, according to the criteria used by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (UICN 1994). We find that a major group of threatened plants consists of species with restricted geographic distributions and those commonly used by humans. By far the largest percentage of these species are orchids (29%) because of overexploitation for ornamental purposes and transformation of habitats (Calderón 1997). Some plant families that are used for timber are also threatened or endangered.
A recent survey of major ecosystems in Colombia has revealed that nearly onethird of the habitats have been altered or transformed as part of development (Ministerio del Medio Ambiente 1997). The most degraded ecosystems are, not surprisingly, those with the highest population pressures (table 1), such as the Andean cloud forests (26.5% of original cover remaining) and the tropical dry forests of the Caribbean lowlands (1.5% remaining). To conserve natural ecosystems and diversity, Colombia has set aside more than 9 million hectares in 45 protected areas, roughly 8% of the country. Although some ecosystems, such as the Andean and Amazonian forests, are well represented in the national park system, others, such as the Orinoco grasslands, are underrepresented. Furthermore, many of the areas lack the size or latitudinal gradients that would make them viable in the long term. In this context, the Alexander von Humboldt Institute is identifying critical areas for the establishment of new parks or biological corridors and is making recommendations on investment of limited resources to maximize the diversity preserved under in situ conditions.
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An additional strategy is to conserve components of biodiversity under ex situ conditions, such as germplasm banks and zoological and botanical gardens. The most important ex situ collections held in Colombia are related to genetic diversity of agricultural crops and livestock. The country has 16 registered botanical gardens, but they contain fewer than 5,000 plant species and no more than 5% of the threatened plants of Colombia. A major effort is under way to strengthen the role of botanical gardens in conservation of and research on endangered flora. However, in situ conservation is generally favored in the absence of a complete understanding of diversity and interactions.
One aspect that has received little attention in tropical ecosystems is the effect of alien species and living modified organisms on biodiversity. Research in other countries has shown that introduced species can make up an important fraction of local biodiversity, and in extreme cases, such as the islands of Hawaii, the total number of plants has doubled over the last 2 centuries. Some introduced species can be aggressive and more tolerant to environmental change and can therefore outcompete native species. The effect is especially severe in island and freshwater ecosystems. Over 140 species of freshwater fishes and crustaceans have been introduced into Colombian rivers and wetlands since the turn of the century and might have led to the extinction of several endemic freshwater fish species (Hernando Alvarado, unpublished data).
Use and Valuation of Biodiversity.
Biodiversity has played a major role in the structuring of human populations. That can be clearly seen in the effects of crop and livestock exchange between continents in recent history and their effect on modern cultures (Hobhouse 1985;
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Viola and Margolis 1991). Our livelihood ultimately depends on the direct benefits that we derive from biological diversity (for example, food) and ecosystem services (such as watershed regulation and air control).
Colombia is home to 81 ethnic groups that have interacted closely with their environment and in some ways shaped it over the centuries. The traditional knowledge of components of biodiversity, their ecology, and their natural history and of ways to manage resources is critical to our understanding of biodiversity. This knowledge is being lost at alarming rates, primarily as a result of the changes in cultures as they incorporate elements of western society. Some of the indigenous groups, such as the U'wa in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada del Cocuy and the Arhuacos in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, have developed complex production systems that take into account seasonal variations and migrations along an altitude gradient that stretches from sea level to the timberline at 3,000 m (Franco 1997). Documenting these management practices and promoting the training of younger generations to preserve the knowledge have high priority.
The Convention on Biological Diversity is to some extent addressing a great paradox: the countries with the highest diversity are the ones with the least economic development. Those countries have legitimate interests in using biological diversity for their development in the 21st century, although the short-term economic benefits are often overestimated. It is important to provide a research basis that recognizes the roles of traditional and scientific knowledge. Preliminary results of our work indicate that the total value of goods and services derived from biodiversity in Colombia can be around $300 billion per year, 5 times the GNP (Mansilla and others, in press). Further research is required to determine the value of goods and services from biodiversity and to examine new uses of and markets for products.
Policy and Legislation
Research on biodiversity is too often left to biology and related disciplines, and little room is left for other fields of research. Therefore, a high priority in the research agenda is to strengthen policy research to evaluate the effects of crosssectoral policies on the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. One clear example is the agrarian reform policy that was promoted during the 1960s and 1970s in Colombia, where “unproductive” land, defined as land that was not used for agricultural and livestock production, was redistributed to small farmers. The policy served as a disincentive for conservation, and the result was that many areas that had remnants of natural forest ecosystems were cleared to give way to pastures and crops. Not only has the policy been changed to be compatible with conservation of natural ecosystems, but also economic incentives for conservation of forest remnants have been established in recent years.
Another critical component is research on legislation at the international, national, and local levels and its effects on biodiversity goals. International conventions, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, are increasingly important as we move toward a global economy. It is important to examine the relationship of legislative developments in related conventions, such as the negotiations
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under the Convention on Climate Change, the Food and Agricultural Organization, and the World Trade Organization. On the national level, the 1991 revision of the constitution of Colombia allowed for many environmental issues to be included. Additional developments have been made at the regional level, such as the agreement among the countries of the Andean Community (Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia) for a common regime for access to genetic resources, known as Decision 391 de la Junta del Acuerdo de Cartagena.
Training
It is no secret that the distribution of research capacities is severely unbalanced geographically and that many developing countries need to train scientists in many of the topics and areas described above. That is done in close collaboration with national and international universities, and our goal is to double the number of researchers in biodiversity in Colombia over the next 25 years. Specialized courses, scholarships, and internships will also play a major role in strengthening national capacity.
Communication and Information
One element that is often not considered in designing research programs is related to information management and delivery of the results in a manner that is useful for different audiences. Potential users include decision-makers, other scientists, the communication media, and the general public. Each audience has its own interests, background, and ways to receive information. A helpful exercise is to identify user groups, needs, and means.
The basis of all communication strategies is information, and such issues as database management are critical for research and decisions. Technological advances in hardware, software, and telecommunication are improving the exchange of information in developing countries. A number of initiatives, such as the clearinghouse mechanism of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the InterAmerican Biodiversity Information Network, will strengthen database management and facilitate information exchange.
The results of scientific research on biodiversity are traditionally published by scientists in academic journals, and little effort has been made to deliver these results in other ways that make them readily accessible to decision-makers and the general public. Research on the natural history of plants and animals has served as the basis of an increasing number of documentaries that are featured on television networks around the globe. Strengthening the technical capacity for production and worldwide distribution of documentaries on Colombian biodiversity has high priority.
Conclusion
The actions described in this paper should strengthen capacity to carry out research that is strategically important for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. The institutional developments undertaken in Colombia in response
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to the Convention on Biological Diversity are aimed at bringing together limited resources to address a common agenda and to help bridge the gap between science and policy.
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