A

Abstract reasoning, 62, 66, 77

Action research, 179, 187-188

Active learning, 10, 12-13, 68, 170, 206

Adaptive expertise, 33-36, 38, 49, 61, 121, 128

African Americans, 60, 61, 97, 98, 123

Algebra, 46, 51, 53, 125-126, 186, 201-202, 213

Alice in Wonderland/Through the Looking Glass books, 93-95

American Association of Physics Teachers, 179

Analogical reasoning, 50, 52, 53-54, 98

Annenberg Critical Friends Project, 185-186

Apprenticeship learning, 97, 179, 202, 208-209

Assessments.

See also Methodologies, learning assessment;

Self-assessment

alternative, 180

conditionalized knowledge and, 31

content-process framework, 131-132

cultural sensitivity in, 60, 98-99, 134

with feedback, 31, 128-129, 142, 232

formative, 128-129, 130, 140, 142, 155, 205, 207

grading practices, 134

of initial learning, 43, 44, 45

learning environments centered on, 127-132, 142, 176, 184-185

memorization focus, 9, 128, 129, 140, 177, 233

multiple-choice tests, 128

portfolio, 130, 208

principles, 127-128, 232-233

of strategic competence, 85

standardized tests, 120, 128, 129, 138, 177, 198-199, 208

summative, 128, 129, 142, 177

teacher learning opportunities, 185-186, 233

theoretical frameworks, 130-132

of understanding, formats for, 44, 129, 130, 131

uses, 128

Astrocytes, 107, 114

Automaticity of skills, 127

Axons, 104

B

Bank Street College, 196, 215

Bay Area and National Writing Project, 183, 185

Behaviorism, 6-8

Beliefs, teachers', 36, 60, 61, 146, 147, 148-149, 152, 158, 159, 183, 187, 191

Belvedere system, 202

Biological causality, 4, 76-77, 78, 100

Biology, 56, 58-59, 162-165, 172-174, 175, 181, 204, 215

Brain development

basics, 104-105

blood vessel formation, 106-108, 114

environments for learning and, 107

exercise and, 105-107, 108

experiences and, 105-107, 108, 109, 112-113, 114-115

functional organization, 108-109, 110-111, 114

instruction and, 109-111

language and, 109-112, 115

learning and, xv-xvi, 4, 102-103, 107-109, 222, 223

misconceptions about, 102

neural activity and, 107-108, 115

plasticity, xix, 111, 221, 236

social interaction and, 107, 114

synaptic connections, 104-106, 107-108, 110, 114

timetable for, 109-110, 114-115

Brain processes

memory and, 112-114

silent areas, 102

Breadloaf Writing Project, 186

BreadNet, 186

Bridging strategy, 167, 168, 175

Bruer, John, 115

Bush, Vannevar, 201

C

Calculus, 54

Case-based learning, 50, 65

Cat learning, 6-8

Causality

biological, 4, 76-77, 78, 100

physical, 72-76

Challenge 2000 Multimedia Project, 210

Chèche Konnen approach, 171-172, 175, 229, 230

Chess, 20, 22-24, 31, 44

Chicago Teachers Academy for Mathematics and Science, 183

Children's learning.

See also Infant cognition

biological causality, 4, 76-77, 78, 100

caregiver-child interactions, xv, 91-92, 100-101, 223

children's conceptions of intelligence and, 70, 89-90

choosing strategies, 87-89

community environments, 70, 99, 101

conversational, 97-98

cultural variations in communication, 96-99, 101

eavesdropping, 97-98

guided learning, 90-99

inquiry-based, 95, 98-99

language, 4, 79-83, 90, 97, 100, 109

mathematics, 4, 12, 57, 59, 79, 80, 100, 125-126, 184, 228-229

memory capacity and, 46, 83-84

metacognition, xv, 35, 70, 85-86, 223

motivation, xv, 49, 65, 89-90, 100, 222

multiple intelligences and, 70, 89

multiple-strategy usage, 86-89

non-self-directed, 90

number concepts, 4, 79, 80, 100

observational, 97

physical concepts, 75-76, 90, 100

preconceptions, xiv, 10-11

prior knowledge, 10-11, 41, 42-43, 56-61, 66

privileged-domain competencies, xiv, 69-70, 72-83, 90, 100, 222

processing time, 46

reading, 93-96

reasoning complexity, xiv, 87, 126, 141, 222

science, 126, 171-174

self-directed, 90

story-telling, 96

strategic competence, xv, 70, 83, 84-86, 100

television and, 70, 138

tool use, 75-76

Chunking/clustering technique, 20-21, 26, 40, 84-85

Classroom Action Research Network, 187

Classrooms

communications technology for, 170, 207

community connections, 195-196, 212-214

competitiveness of students, 134

environments for learning, 132-135, 142, 234, 235

Global Lab, 197

norms and expectations, 133-135, 176

research-based in, 187-188

Classtalk, 170, 207

Coaching, 30, 56, 165-166, 168-170, 210-211

Cognitive

representations and strategies, 53, 132, 133

science, 8

Cognitively Guided Instruction Project, 185

Collaborative learning

action research, 187

computer technology and, 197, 200-201, 207, 209

scientist-student partnerships, 197, 205

students, 62, 96, 129, 140, 170, 180, 210-211

teachers, 183, 185-187

Communication

cultural differences, 61, 96-99, 101

interactive, 195-196, 207

network, 208-209

Communities of learners, 88, 144-145, 156, 170, 187, 192

Communities of practice, 171-172, 185-186, 195-196, 197, 215-217

Community learning environments

broader community connections, 49, 135-137, 142, 212-214, 233-234

children's learning and, 70, 99, 100

classrooms, 132-135, 142

computer technology and, 70, 200-201, 212-214, 215-216

schools, 135, 142

student-scientist partnerships, 197

for teachers, 185-187, 192, 215-216

Competence.

See also Strategic competence

zone of proximal development, 68-69, 70, 96

Competitiveness of students, 134

Comprehension-fostering activities, 95-96

Computational modeling research, 14

Computer language tasks, 41, 43, 48, 53

Computer programming experts, 21

Computer-Supported Intentional Learning Environments (CSILE), 207-208, 209, 215

Computer technology

applications, xix, 231-232, 235

classroom communications systems, 170

classroom-community connections, 70, 195-196, 197, 212-214, 231, 235

curriculum innovations, 4, 56, 195-201, 232

feedback through, 166, 170, 204-212, 231

importance, 194-195, 217-218

research recommendations, xxiii, 239-240

scaffolds and scaffolding, 56, 201-204, 231

teacher learning opportunities, 182, 183, 186, 214-217, 231

tools, 56, 62, 195, 201-204, 231-232

tutoring environments, 166, 209-212, 213

Conceptions of learning, changes in, xi-xii

Concepts

knowledge organized around, 9, 21, 24, 26, 30-32, 37, 169-170

representations of, 51, 53-54

Conceptual change.

See also Preconceptions

science, 167-168, 172-174, 175

understanding, 58-59

Conceptual learning, 48, 153-154

conceptual structures, 9, 21, 24, 26, 28, 30-32, 37, 47, 53-54, 75 , 169-170

Conditionalized knowledge, 30-32, 37, 47-48, 50, 185

Consciousness studies, 6

Constructivism, 10-11, 180, 183, 187

Content knowledge.

See Subject-matter (discipline) knowledge

Content-process assessment framework, 131-132

Context

and access to knowledge, 9, 30-32, 37, 65

and language development, 82-83

and transfer of learning, 41, 50-51, 52, 66, 173

Contextualized reasoning, 62-63, 66

Contrasting-cases strategy, 48, 66

Conversational learning, 97-98, 208, 213-214

Cooperative learning, 180

Counting, 59, 66, 71, 79, 80, 86-87, 88, 153-154, 155, 157, 184, 225, 228

Cultural practices

and children's learning, 96-99, 101

classroom norms and, 134-135

communications, 61, 96-99, 101

misinterpretation of, 139

sensitivity of teachers to, 121-122, 123-124, 141

transfer of learning and, 4, 59-61, 66, 97-99

Curricula

computer-based innovations, 4, 56, 195-201

design approaches, 30, 31, 126-127, 141

limitations of traditional approaches, 124-125, 126, 127

multiple-intelligences basis, 89

with real-world contexts, 57, 62-64, 157, 159, 195-201

scope and sequence charts, 126

D

Dade Academy of the Teaching Arts, 186

Dart-throwing experiments, 44

Dendritic fields, 104

Descriptive Review, 186

Developmental psychology, 70-72, 79

Dewey, John, 63, 120, 135

Diagnostic teaching, 122-123

Diagraming by experts, 26

Discourse, classroom, 60, 123, 171, 175, 187, 192

Doctrine of formal discipline, 39

Dodgson, C.L. (Lewis Carroll), 93-95

E

Eavesdropping, 97-98

Education

goal changes, 4-5, 119-121

science of learning and, 4-5, 13-14

teacher preservice, 188-191, 192, 216, 217

Elaboration, 84

Entity theories, 90

Environments for learning, 4

alignment of goals, 139-140, 142

assessment-centered, xvii, 127-132, 142, 176, 184-185

and brain development, 107

community-centered, xvii, 132-137, 142, 176, 185-187

educational goal changes, 119-121

interconnected components, 121, 122, 124, 126, 142, 235

knowledge-centered, xvii, 124-127, 141, 176, 182-183

language development and, 81-83

learner centered, xvi-xvii, 121-124, 126, 141, 176, 180-182, 200-201

for teachers, 4, 180-187

television, 137-139

Ethnography, 15, 98-99

Exercise, and brain development, 105-107, 108

Experiences

and brain development, 105-107, 108, 109, 112-113, 114-115

prior, and transfer of learning, 41, 42-43, 56-61, 66

Expert performance

adaptive, 33-36, 38, 49, 61, 121, 128

content knowledge and, 33, 38, 144, 145, 147, 149, 151-152, 154, 176

context and access to knowledge, 9, 30-32, 37, 65

metacognition and, 35-36, 38

organization of knowledge, 4, 24-30, 33, 36, 37, 38, 44, 113, 124, 127, 143, 225-226, 227

pattern recognition, 20-24, 32, 36, 38, 44

principles of, xii-xiii, 19, 36-38

retrieval of knowledge, 20-21, 32, 37, 38, 44

segmentation of perceptual fields, 24

talent and, 46

teaching ability, 4, 21, 24, 25, 32-33, 34, 37-38, 143-145, 147-149, 176, 216-217, 228, 230

time investment for, 44, 46, 227

Extracurricular clubs and organizations, 137, 233-234

F

Family

internet linkages with schools, 212-213

learning environment, 91-92, 96-99, 100-101, 136-137, 141, 142, 234

Feedback, 47

assessments with, 31, 128-129, 142, 232

computer technology, 166, 170, 204-212

importance, 65-66

interactive lectures, 168, 175, 207

peer, 207-208, 210-211

teacher learning from, 184-185, 191

tutoring environments, 165-166, 209

types of, 146, 148-149

Fish Is Fish, 10-11, 58, 124

Formative assessments, 128-129, 130, 140, 142, 155, 205, 207

Functional magnetic resonance imaging, 103, 112, 113

G

GenScope Project, 204

Geographic information systems, 203

Geometry, 12, 45, 126, 158, 212

Geometry Tutor, 212

Global Lab, 197, 208

Grading practices, 134

H

Hamlet, 34

Hawaiian children, 96, 123

Heuristic problem-solving strategy, 55-56

Hippocampus, 112

History, 120

curricula (existing), 124

dates-facts teaching method, 145, 146, 148-149

debating evidence, 149-151

experts, 26, 29-30, 35, 146

interpreting events, 146

teachers' differing views of, 146, 148-149

teaching, 145-152, 229-230

Holmes Group, 188

HumBio Project, 215

I

Ideal student initiative, 88

Impetus theory, 58

Incremental theories, 90

Infant cognition

active learning, 10

assessment methods, 67, 70-72

biological causality, 76

habituation paradigm, 71, 72, 73-74, 76, 79

language, 61, 79, 81, 92

memory, 71

non-nutritive sucking, 71

number concepts, 77, 79

physical concepts, 72-76

schema use, 75

social interactions and, 91

theories of, 67-70

transfer of learning, 75

visual expectation, 71, 75, 79

Inferencing processes, 112, 226

Information processing theories, 68, 79, 83-84

Information systems design, 33-34

Initial learning.

See also Preconceptions

assessment of, 43, 44, 45

elements that promote, 41, 43-49

memorization and, 43-44, 45

monitoring and feedback, 46-48

motivation and, 48-49

tests of, 54

time allowed for, 44, 46

and transfer of learning, 39, 41, 43-49, 54, 56, 65, 191

understanding and, 43-44, 45

Inquiry-based instruction, 11-12, 56, 95, 98-99, 144-145, 205

Institute for Research on Learning, 201

Instruction

abstract, 53-54

and brain development, 109-111

bridging strategy, 167, 168, 175

case-based, 50, 52

changes in methods, 120-121

coaching technique, 30, 56, 165-166, 168-170, 210-211

cognitively guided, 90-99, 126, 185, 228

conceptual change strategies, 167-168

direct or lecture forms, 59

fluency development, 32

inquiry-based, 11-12, 56, 95, 98-99, 144-145, 205, 216-217

interactive, 167-168, 170, 175, 197, 204, 207

in large classes, 170, 207

metacognitive approaches, 12, 55-56, 66, 128, 205

modeling, 55, 56, 173

pattern recognition, 32

problem-based, 50, 51, 52

progressive formalization, 125-126, 127

prompting technique, 54

scaffolding, 55, 56

strategic development and, 88-89

time, 46

video archives, 216-217

Instructional design, 30, 31, 126-127, 141

Intelligence.

See also Multiple intelligences

children's conceptions of, 70, 89-90

Internet, 197, 208, 212-214, 215-216

Inuits, 134

J

Japanese

classroom culture, 135

language development, 109-110

sushi experts, 33

Jasper Woodbury Problem Solving Series, 196, 197, 198-199, 204-205

K

Kamehameha School, 123

KEEP program, 96

Kids as Global Scientists research project, 214, 216

Knowing, theory of, 11

Knowledge.

See also Organization of knowledge

access to, 9, 30-32, 37, 65

conditionalized, 30-32, 37, 47-48, 50, 185

content, 33

cultural, 60

environments for learning, 124-127, 141, 176, 182-183

expertise and, 4, 9, 24-32, 33, 36, 37, 113

facets, 169-170

pedagogical content, 33

pre-existing, 10-12, 57, 66

representations, 53-54, 66

see also Schemas

retrieval fluency, 20-21, 32, 37

Knowledge Forum, 207

L

Labeling, 92, 95

LabNet Project, 186, 215

Language development and abstract thought, 67

adult-infant interactions, 61, 92

and brain development, 109-112, 115

context and, 82-83

cultural differences in, 97-98, 123-124

early, 4, 61, 79-83, 90, 100

eavesdropping and, 97-98

environments for learning and, 81-83

sign language, 110-111

situated, 82, 97

story-telling, 61, 93, 96

Learner centered environments, 121-124, 126, 141, 176, 180-182, 200 -201

Learning-oriented learners, 49

Learning theories, xii, xvi, 3, 14, 36, 39, 41, 51, 53, 119, 187, 191, 192

assessment linked to, 130-132

infants' capabilities, 67-70

Learning Through Collaborative Visualization (CoVis) Project, 200, 203, 209

Levin, James, 215-216

Literacy, changes in definition of, 120, 121

Little Planet Literacy Series, 202

Literature, teaching, 34

LOGO programming experiment, 41, 43, 48

M

Math Their Way, 182

Mathematics, 120

algebra, 46, 51, 53, 125-126, 186, 201-202, 213

assessments, 129, 198-199

attitudes about, 198-199

calculus, 54

children's knowledge of, 12, 57, 59, 79, 80, 100, 125-126, 184, 228 -229

computer-based tools and scaffolds, 201-204, 213, 215, 217

contextualized reasoning, 62-64

counting-based arithmetic, 66, 86-87

curricula (existing), 125

experts, 21, 29, 38

fractions, 59, 60, 62, 79, 100

girls' participation in, 133

guided discussion, 156-158, 228

instruction time, 46

Jasper Woodbury series, 196, 197, 198-199

Math Their Way curriculum, 182

model-based reasoning, 158-159, 203, 228

multiplication, 153-154, 155

negative numbers, 154, 156

number concepts, 4, 79, 80, 100

PUMP curriculum, 213

real-world applications, 57, 62-64, 157, 159, 201-202, 213

software tools, 201-202

standards, 124

strategic activities, 86-87

teacher learning opportunities, 182, 183, 185, 186

teaching, 38, 50, 51, 55-56, 96, 125-126, 129, 152-159

transfer of competence, 53

video archives, 216-217

Mathematics in Context, 124

Mathematics Learning project, 215

Mathline, 186

Measures of learning, 39, 65, 66, 128.

See also Assessments

Medawar, Peter, 171

Medial frontal cortex, 106

Memorization, 8-9

assessments based on, 9, 128, 129, 140, 177

and transfer of learning, 43-44, 45, 47, 65, 228

Memory.

See also Organization of knowledge;

Retrieval of knowledge

and brain processes, 112-114

children's capacity, 46, 83-84

declarative, 112

experiments, 22-23

false, 113

infants, 71

procedural, 112

short-term, 21, 22-23, 46

strategies, 84-85

synaptic connections and, 105

Metacognition

children's learning and, 35, 70, 85-86

defined, 12, 35

expertise and, 35-36, 38

instruction approaches, 12, 55-56, 66, 125, 128, 205

Methodologies, learning assessment

graduated prompting, 54

infants, 67, 70-72

research recommendations, xxi, 237-238

think-aloud, 20, 172

standardized tests, 120

Microgenetic studies, 88

Microworlds, interactive computer, 204

Middle School Mathematics Through Application Projects, 201-202

Minds on Physics, 181, 182-183

Misconceptions, 66, 166-167, 173-174, 175

about brain development, 102

cultural, 139

science, 58, 167-168, 206, 217, 229

about teaching, 144, 151, 176

Model-based learning, 10, 51, 55-56, 154, 156, 158-159, 203, 228

Modeling, 55, 56

computational modeling research, 14

technology-based tools, 203, 204

Model-It, 204

Monitoring of learning, 46-47, 55-56, 66

Motivation to learn

achievement/competence, 49, 90, 91, 200-201

behaviorism, 6

children's, 49, 65, 89-90, 100

competence, 48

computer technology and, 198-199, 200-201, 212, 215

learning orientation and, 49

performance orientation and, 49

social opportunities and, 49

Motor skills, 44, 53, 107, 109

Multiple-choice tests, 128

Multiple intelligences, 70, 89

Multiple strategies concept, 86-89

Multiplication, teaching, 153-154

N

National Commission on Teaching and America's Future, 190

National Research Council, 126

National Science Foundation, 180

Navajos, 134

Neostriatum, 112

Nerve cells, 104, 114

Neural activity, 107-108, 115

Neuroimaging, 103, 112, 113

Non-self-directed learning, 90

Novices

accomplished, 36

experts compared to, 19-38

Numbers

early concepts, 4, 77-79, 80, 100

negative, 154-156

rational, 59, 60, 62, 79, 100

O

Observational learning, 97, 134

Oral skills, oral tradition, 61, 93, 96

Organization of knowledge, 4

chunking/clustering technique, 20-21, 26, 40, 84-85

cognitive activity and, 131-132

conceptual, 9, 26, 30-32, 37, 169-170

experts, 4, 24-30, 33, 36, 37, 38, 44, 113, 124, 127, 143, 225-226

hierarchical structures, 161-165, 204

memory and, xi-xii

in schemas, 21, 24, 26, 28, 47, 53-54

P

Parallel distributed processing, 14

Pattern recognition, expertise and, 20-24, 32, 36, 38, 44

Pause times, 26, 37

Pedagogical content knowledge, 33, 38, 143-144, 151-152, 154, 156, 176

action research, 187

teacher learning opportunities, 182, 187

Pedagogy

generic, 182

theory of, 11

Perceptual learning, 48, 68

Performance-oriented learners, 49

Phenomenological primitives, 169

Philadelphia Teachers Learning Cooperative, 187

Phonemes, 109

Photosynthesis, 59-60

Physical causality, 90

Physical concepts, 72-76

children's competencies, 72-76, 90, 100

Physical models, 173

Physics, 11-12

assessments of understanding, 129, 130, 131

calculus and, 54

computer tools, 56, 204, 205, 206, 215

experts, 21, 25-26, 27, 159-160

hierarchical analyses, 160-161

Minds on Physics curriculum, 181, 182-183

misconceptions, 58, 167-168, 206

qualitative strategies, 159-160

teacher learning opportunities, 181, 182-183, 185, 187

teaching strategies, 160-170, 175

Physics Teacher Action Research Group, 187

Physics Teacher Resource Agent Project, 179

Piaget, Jean, 68, 73, 75

Plausibility judgments, 87

Portfolio assessment, 130, 208

Positron emission tomography, 103, 112

Practice

and brain development, 110, 111, 113

enhanced normal, 187

importance of, 41, 83, 165-166

language, 83, 110

monitoring and feedback with, 46-47

time required for, 44, 46

Preconceptions, 10-12, 58-59, 124, 141, 206

Principled conceptual knowledge, 153-154

Prior knowledge, 10-11, 41, 42-43, 56-61, 66

Privileged domains, early competencies, 69-70, 72-83, 90, 100

Problem-based learning, 50, 65

Problem representations, 51, 153-154, 155, 226, 232

Problem solving

collective, 55-56

expert's approach to, xii, 25-26, 27, 29, 31, 38, 44

heuristic, 55-56

hierarchical analysis, 161-165

human need for, 90, 91

trial and error, 6-8

workplace simulations, 197

Procedural facilitation strategy, 55

Professional development.

See Teacher learning

Progressive formalization, 125-126, 127

Project GLOBE, 200

Project Rightstart, 79, 88

Project SEED, 183

Project Zero, 186

Prompting, 54, 55

Pueblo Indian children, 97

PUMP curriculum, 213

Q

Questions, questioning, question-asking, 11-12, 56, 95, 98-99, 144 -145, 205

QUILL network, 215

R

Radical behaviorism, 8

Radiology experts, 21

Readiness to learn, 69

Reading, 55, 87, 93-96, 120, 121, 217

Real-world learning

computer technology and, 195-201, 213

mathematics, 57, 62-64, 157, 159, 196, 213

workplace simulations, 197

Reasoning

abstract, 62, 66, 67

analogical, 50, 52, 53-54, 98

causal, 87

contextualized, 62-63, 66

generic, 170

model-based, 158-159, 173, 228

scientific, 87, 174-175

spatial, 87

strategies of children, 87, 126, 141

Reciprocal teaching, 55, 88, 93

Referential communications, 87, 94

Reflection, 12, 85-86, 191

Rehearsal activities, 84, 86, 87

Reminiscing, 96

Representations, 94

cognitive, 53, 132, 133

of concepts, 51, 53-54

virtual models, 203

Research, action, 187-188

Research on learning.

See also Science of learning

agenda, 235-236

focus, 5-6

recommendations, xix-xxiii, 236-240

Retrieval of knowledge

chunking technique, 20-21, 26, 40

context of original learning and, 50

cueing, 86

expertise and, 20-21, 32, 37, 38, 44

practice, 86

schematic organization and, 54

S

Scaffolding, 55, 56, 92, 96, 170, 201-204, 214

Schemas

infant push-pull, 75

organization of knowledge in, 21, 24, 26, 28, 47, 53-54

Schools

alignment of goals within, 140

as communities, 70, 212-214

transfer of learning to everyday life, 61-65, 66

transparent, 212

Science education, 120-121.

See also Biology;

Physics

assessment of understanding, 131-132

Chèche Konnen approach, 171-172, 175, 229, 230

coaching technique, 168-170

computer tools, 202, 204, 217

conceptual change, 167-168, 172-174, 175, 217

curricula (existing), 124-125

foundations for, 237

girls' participation in, 133

interactive instruction in large classes, 170

language practices in, 123-124

public policy issues, 202

real-world learning approaches, 200-201, 202

research recommendations, xx-xxi, 237

scientific reasoning, 174-175

standards, 124

strategies, 126, 159-166

student-scientist partnerships, 197, 205

teacher learning opportunities, 181-182, 183

teaching, 159-175

for young and ''at risk" children, 126, 171-174

Science of learning

active learning, 12-13

collaborations in, xxii, 238-239

development, 6-8

educational implications, 4-5, 13-14, 221

evolution of, 3-4, 14

methodological research, 237-238

pre-existing knowledge, 10-12

research recommendations, xix-xx, xxii, 236-237

understanding, emphasis on, 8-9

Self-assessment, 12, 128

Self-directed learning, 56, 90

Self-regulation, 85-86, 226

Sense-making approaches, 12, 125, 147-149, 153, 171-172, 175, 186

Sesame Street, 139

Sherlock Project, 210-211

Situated learning, 15, 76, 82, 92, 95-96, 97, 100, 122, 187

SMART Challenge Series, 205, 207

Social interactions, 91, 172

and brain development, 107, 114

caregiver-child, 91-92, 100-101

Social opportunities, and motivations to learn, 49

Social studies, 4, 49, 145, 207

Software, educational, xix, 4, 56, 170, 195-201, 202, 203, 204, 207 -208, 209, 215

Spelling, 87

Spines, dendritic, 104

Standardized tests, 120, 128, 129, 138, 177, 198-199, 208

STELLA modeling environment, 204

Stereotyping, 133, 139

Story-telling, 61, 93, 96

Strategic competence, 170

assessment of, 85

children's, 70, 83, 84-86, 100

choosing strategies, 87-89

multiple strategies, 86-89

Stroke victims, 111, 223

Structural knowledge.

See Organization of knowledge

Student Conference on Global Warming, 200-201

Subject-matter (discipline) knowledge and effective teaching, 33, 38, 144, 145, 147, 149, 151-152, 154, 176

teacher learning opportunities, 183, 187, 190-191

Summarization strategy, 84

Summative assessments, 128, 129, 142, 177

SummerMath, 183

Synaptic connections, 104-106, 107-108, 110, 114

T

Tabula rasa theory, 67, 68

Taking turns, 55

Teacher learning

action research, 179, 187-188

assessment methods, 185-186

assessment-centered environments, 184-185

certification programs, 185

collaborative group work, 183, 185-187

community-centered environments, 185-187, 192, 215-217

computer technology and, 182, 183, 186, 214-217

environments for, 4, 180-187

feedback from colleagues, 184-185

inservice, 179, 192

knowledge-centered environments, 182-183, 186

learner-centered environments, 180-182

mentoring, 179, 181, 183, 216

opportunities for practicing teachers, 179-180, 192

paid time for, 188

preservice education, 188-191, 192, 216, 217

quality of opportunities, xviii, 180-187

recommendations, xxiii, 240

subject matter, 183, 187, 190-191

and transfer of learning, 191

workshops, 181-182, 192

Teacher Professional Development Institute (TAPPED IN), 216

Teaching.

See also Instruction

Chèche Konnen approach, 171-172, 175

cultural sensitivity in, 121-122, 123-124, 141

diagnostic, 122-123

differential views of subject matter, 146

expert, xvii-xviii, 4, 21, 24, 25, 32-33, 34, 37-38, 143-145, 147-149, 176, 216-217, 228, 230-231

goals-practices relationship, 12-13

history, 145-152, 229-230

knowledge of individual learners, 156-158, 231

learner-centered, 121-122

left brain/right brain, 102

mathematics, 38, 152-159, 182, 228-229

memory processes and, 113

misconceptions about, 144, 151, 176

pedagogical content knowledge, xviii, 33, 38, 143-144, 151-152, 154 , 156, 176, 182, 230, 231

philosophical traditions of, 189

physics, 160-170, 175

reading, 55

reciprocal, 55, 88, 96

science, 159-175, 179, 181-183, 229, 230

subject-matter expertise, xviii, 144, 145, 147, 149, 151-152, 154, 176, 190-191, 230

by telling, 11, 59

written composition, 55

Technologies.

See Computer technology

Television, 70, 83, 137-139

Text-editor experiment, 53, 54

Theoretical problem description, 163-164

Theory of mind, 70, 89-90

ThinkerTools Inquiry Curriculum, 205

Third International Mathematics and Science Study, 30, 125

Thorndike, Edward L., 6-8

Time capsules, 147

Time on task, 44, 46, 65-66, 227

Time to learn, 44, 46, 65-66

Tools

infant use of, 75-76

technology, 56, 62, 201-204

Transfer of learning, 4.

See also Teaching

active approaches, 54, 224

conceptual change and, 58-59, 225

conditions of transfer and, xiii, 4, 39, 41, 51-54

context of original learning and, xiii, 41, 50-51, 52, 66, 173, 224

cultural practices and, 4, 59-61, 66, 97-99

defined, 39

determinants of, 223-225, 227

feedback and, 47, 65, 66,

flexible, 50-51, 52, 65, 66, 223, 224

by infants, 75

initial learning and, 39, 41, 43-49, 54, 56, 65, 191, 223-224

knowledge base and, 57, 66

measures of, 39, 65

memorization and, xiii-xiv, 39, 43-44, 45, 65

metacognition and, xiv, 55-56, 66

motivation and, 48-49, 65

near, 41

negative, 41, 42-43

passive approaches, 54

practice and, 41, 46-47

previous experiences and, 41, 42-43, 56-61, 66, 224-225

problem representations, 41, 51, 66

from school to everyday life, 61-65, 66

teacher role to students, 214-215

tests, 39

time necessary for, 44-46, 65-66, 224

understanding and, xiii-xiv, 6, 43-44, 45, 58-59, 65-66, 124, 224

Tutoring environments, 166, 209-212, 213

U

Understanding

assessment formats, 44, 129, 130, 131

conceptual change, 58-59

contrasting-cases concept, 48

feedback on, 47

learning with, 6, 8-9, 124, 125-126, 127, 128, 168-169, 227

memorization contrasted, 43-44, 45, 47

negative numbers, 154-156

physical causality, 72-76

and problem solving, 29

and transfer of learning, 43-44, 45, 47-48, 58-59, 65-66, 124

U.S. Department of Education, 180, 221

usefulness of information, 49

V

Video-based learning programs, 196-197, 216-217

Visible thinking, 70, 173-174, 208-209

Visual cortex, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109

Visual learning, 53, 203

Voyage of the Mimi, 196

Vygotsky, Lev, 10

W

WEBCSILE, 215

Wisconsin Teacher Enhancement Program in Biology, 181-182

Woodrow Wilson Fellows, 179

Word problems, 31, 51, 157, 184

Writing, 55, 120, 183, 202, 210-211, 215

Wundt, Wilhelm, 6

Z

Zone of proximal development, 68-69, 70, 96