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Front Matter i-xvi
INTRODUCTION 1-1
Lightning 2-3
Cloud Electrification 4-5
Electrical Structure of the Atmosphere 6-7
The Planetary Boundary Layer 8-8
Mesosphere 9-9
Ionosphere and Magnetosphere 10-11
Techniques for Evaluating the Electrical Processes and Structure 12-13
Societal Impact 14-15
Recommendations 16-19
References 20-20
I LIGHTNING 21-22
Optical Detectors 23-24
Intracloud Versus Cloud-to-Ground Lightning 25-26
Lightning Flash and Related Characteristics 27-27
Lightning Location Networks 28-28
References 29-29
INTRODUCTION 30-30
CLOUD-TO-GROUND LIGHTNING 31-31
Time-Domain Fields and Lightning Currents 32-35
Locations of Lightning Radio Sources 36-36
Artificial Triggering of Lightning 37-38
References 39-40
RECENT AND ONGOING STUDIES 41-42
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 43-44
References 45-45
Shock-Wave Formation and Expansion 46-47
Comparisons with Numerical Simulations and Experiments 48-49
Tortuosity and the Thunder Signature 50-50
PROPAGATION EFFECTS 51-51
Finite-Amplitude Propagation 52-52
Scattering and Aerosol Effects 53-53
Refraction 54-55
Propagation Effects Evaluation 56-56
Acoustic Reconstruction of Lightning Channels 57-57
ELECTROSTATICALLY PRODUCED ACOUSTIC EMISSIONS 58-58
References 59-60
INTRODUCTION 61-61
Mechanisms of Lightning Damage 62-63
New Results on Lightning Characteristics 64-65
Protection Techniques 66-67
FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDED FOR IMPROVEMENTS IN PROTECTION 68-68
References 69-69
INTRODUCTION 70-71
NO PRODUCTION BY LIGHTNING 72-72
The Global Dissipation Rate, R 73-73
The Global NO Production Rate, (NO) 74-74
OTHER TRACE GASES PRODUCED BY LIGHTNING 75-75
References 76-78
II CLOUD AND THUNDERSTORM ELECTRICITY 79-80
VERTICAL CONVECTION AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT 81-81
Conditioning the Air for Overturning 82-83
CONDENSATION AND PRECIPITATION IN RELATION TO AIR MOTION 84-84
STRONG CONVECTION 85-85
HAIL 86-86
TORNADOES 87-87
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 88-88
References 89-89
8 The Electrical Structure of Thunderstorms 90-90
ELECTRICAL STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT 91-93
THE MAIN NEGATIVE AND UPPER POSITIVE CHARGES: SOME OBSERVATIONAL EVIDENCE 94-96
DISCUSSION 97-99
PARTICLE-CHARGE OBSERVATIONS 100-101
CHARGE MOTIONS AND CURRENTS 102-103
LIGHTNING AND THE STORM ELECTRIFICATION 104-106
LIGHTNING EVOLUTION 107-108
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 109-110
References 111-113
INTRODUCTION 114-114
Diffusion Charging 115-115
Drift Charging 116-116
Selective Ion Charging 117-117
Breakup Charging 118-118
Induction Charging 119-119
Induction Charging 120-120
Interface Charging 121-123
Cloud Stage 124-124
Rain Stage 125-125
Hail Stage 126-127
CONCLUSIONS 128-128
References 129-130
INTRODUCTION 131-131
MECHANISMS OF CHARGE SEPARATION 132-132
Inductive Process 133-133
Freezing Potentials 134-134
CHARGING BY ION ATTACHMENT 135-136
Parallel-Plate Models 137-137
One-Dimensional Models 138-139
Two-Dimensional Models 140-141
Three-Dimensional Models 142-142
DISCUSSION 143-143
References 144-146
III GLOBAL AND REGIONAL ELECTRICAL PROCESSES 147-148
INTRODUCTION 149-149
Ionization 150-150
Properties of Ions 151-151
Attachment of Ions to Aerosol Particles 152-152
Effect of the Global Circuit 153-153
Turbulent Transport of Electrical Properties 154-154
PHENOMENOLOGY OF ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY IN THE PLANETARY BOUNDARY LAYER 155-158
MODELING AND THEORY 159-159
The Electrode Effect 160-160
Convection Currents in the Planetary Boundary Layer 161-161
Measurement of Global-Scale Phenomena 162-162
Ion Physics and Balance in the Planetary Boundary Layer 163-163
References 164-165
INTRODUCTION 166-166
ION PRODUCTION IN THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE 167-167
AEROSOLS IN THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE 168-169
ATMOSPHERIC CONDUCTIVITY, SMALL ION CONCENTRATION, AND MOBILITY 170-175
AIR-EARTH CURRENT AND ELECTRIC FIELDS IN THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE 176-179
CONCLUSION 180-180
References 181-182
INTRODUCTION 183-183
SOURCES OF IONIZATION 184-184
Positive Ions 185-185
Negative Ions 186-186
Model Calculations 187-187
CONDUCTIVITY IN THE MIDDLE ATMOSPHERE 188-190
ELECTRIC FIELDS IN THE MIDDLE ATMOSPHERE 191-191
CONCLUSION 192-192
References 193-194
14 Upper-Atmosphere Electric-Field Sources 195-195
ELECTRODYNAMIC PROCESSES IN SPACE 196-196
SOLAR WIND/MAGNETOSPHERE DYNAMO 197-198
IONOSPHERIC WIND DYNAMO 199-200
VARIABILITY 201-202
EFFECTS OF UPPER-ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRIC FIELDS AND CURRENTS 203-203
SOME OUTSTANDING PROBLEMS 204-204
References 205-205
15 The Global Atmospheric-Electrical Circuit 206-206
THUNDERSTORMS AS GENERATORS IN THE GLOBAL CIRCUIT 207-209
Global Thunderstorms 210-211
Current Above Thunderstorms 212-212
Electrical Conductivity, Columnar Resistance, and Global Resistance 213-214
Fair-Weather Vertical Current Density and Total Current 215-215
Ionosphere Potential 216-216
MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY 217-221
Model Improvements 222-222
Regional Modeling 223-223
ELECTRICAL COUPLING BETWEEN THE UPPER AND LOWER ATMOSPHERE 224-226
SOME OUTSTANDING PROBLEMS 227-228
References 229-231
INTRODUCTION 232-233
The Physical Problem: Hydrology, Geology, Geothermics, and Tectonics 234-240
Deep Telluric Currents 241-242
Communication Cables 243-244
Powerlines 245-245
Railways 246-246
Prospecting of Underground Structures 247-247
Earth's Astronomical Motion 248-248
CONCLUSIONS 249-249
References 250-253
APPENDIX: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 254-255
Appendix References 256-258
INDEX 259-263

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The Earth's Electrical Environment (1986)

Chapter: Refraction

My Academies

The Earth's Electrical Environment (1986)

Chapter: Refraction