First Name
Last Name
Email (required)
I agree to receive emails from the National Academies (required)

We respect your privacy and will never share your information.

Search this publication

Front Matter i-xi
Contents xii-xiv
Human Translation 1-1
Types of Translator Employment 2-3
English as the Language of Science 4-4
Time Required for Scientists to Learn Russian 5-5
Translation in the United States Government 6-6
Number of Government Translators 7-8
Amount Spent for Translation 9-10
Is there a Shortage of Translators or Translation? 11-12
Regarding a Possible Excess of Translation 13-15
The Crucial Problems of Translation 16-18
The Present State of Machine Translation 19-24
Machine-Aided Translation at Mannheim and Luxembourg 25-28
Automatic Language Processing and Computational Linguistics 29-31
Avenues to Improvement of Translation 32-33
Recommendations 34-34
Appendix 1. Experiments in Sight Translation and Full Translation 35-36
Appendix 2. Defense Language Institute Course in Scientific Russian 37-38
Appendix 3. The Joint Publications Research Service 39-40
Appendix 4. Public Law 480 Translations 41-42
Appendix 5. Machine Translations at the Foreign Technology Division, U.S. Air Force Systems Command 43-44
Appendix 6. Journals Translated with Support by the National Science Foundation 45-49
Appendix 7. Civil Service Commission Data on Federal Translators 50-53
Appendix 8. Demand for and Availability of Translators 54-56
Appendix 9. Cost Estimates of Various Types of Translation 57-66
Appendix 10. An Experiment in Evaluating the Quality of Translations 67-75
Appendix 11. Types of Errors Common in Machine Translation 76-78
Appendix 12. Machine-Aided Translation at the Federal Armed Forces Translation Agency, Mannheim, Germany 79-86
Appendix 13. Machine-Aided Translation at the European Coal and Steel Community, Luxembourg 87-90
Appendix 14. Translation Versus Postediting of Machine Translation 91-101
Appendix 15. Evaluation by Science Editors and Joint Publications Research Service and Foreign Technology Division Translations 102-106
Appendix 16. Government Support of Machine-Translation Research 107-112
Appendix 17. Computerized Publishing 113-117
Appedix 18. Relation Between Programming Languages and Linguistics 118-120
Appendix 19. Machine Translation and Linguistics 121-123
Appendix 20. Persons Who Appeared Before the Committee 124-124

Log In

Former MyNAP users: You'll need to reset your password on your first login to MyAcademies. Click "Forgot password" below to receive a reset link via email. Having trouble? Visit our FAQ page to contact support.

Members of the National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, or National Academy of Medicine should log in through their respective Academy portals.

Email (required)
Password (required)

Don't have an account?

Register

Email (required)
New password (required)
Retype password (required) Password must be at least 8 characters
I agree to receive emails from the National Academies
I accept the terms of use
terms of use

Thank You

Thank you for creating a MyAcademies account!

Enjoy free access to thousands of National Academies' publications, a 10% discount off every purchase, and build your personal library.

Forgot Password

Enter the email address for your MyAcademies (formerly MyNAP) account to receive password reset instructions.

Email (required)

Reset Requested

We sent password reset instructions to your email . Follow the link in that email to create a new password. Didn't receive it? Check your spam folder or contact us for assistance.

Reset Password

New password (required)
Retype password (required) Password must be at least 8 characters

Reset Password

Your password has been reset.

Verify email

Verify Your Email Address

We sent a verification link to your email. Please check your inbox (and spam folder) and follow the link to verify your email address. If you did not receive the email, you can request a new verification link below

Language and Machines: Computers in Translation and Linguistics (1966)

Chapter: Types of Translator Employment

My Academies

Language and Machines: Computers in Translation and Linguistics (1966)

Chapter: Types of Translator Employment