Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences (2001)
Chapter: Index
Index
A
Adaptation, 31
Adherence, in clinical interventions, 192– 194
Administrative strategies, 246
Adolescents with chronic disease, 212–218
family therapy for, 217–218
interventions affecting family relationship quality and functioning, 215–217
psychoeducational interventions for, 212–215
Adrenal steroids, 44
Adult weight gain, 96–97
Adults with chronic disease, interventions for, 218–219
Advantage, relative, of innovations, 305– 306
Adverse social interactions, 150–151
Advocacy Institute, 346
Affliction, disproportionate, of sexually transmitted infections, 110–112
Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (AHCPR), 335–336
Alcohol consumption, 102–107
early data on, 19
maldistribution in, 106
negative health effects, 103–104
positive health effects, 104–105
quantifying net public health benefit, 105–107
socioeconomic factors in, 102–103
Allostasis and allostatic load, 4–5, 41–42
in the autonomic nervous system, 45
patterns of long-term harm associated with, 46
Alzheimer’s disease, 211
American Academy of Pediatrics, 115
American Cancer Society, 107, 117, 119, 203
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 117
American Heart Association, 115
Heart Partners program, 308
American Medical Association, 115, 117
American Psychiatric Association, 22
American Psychological Association, 281
Anger, 65
associated with susceptibility to diseases, 4
Anti-tobacco interventions, government level, 339–345
Anxiety, 67
Arousal, and memory modulation, 49–51
Assessing outcomes, 275–278
choice of outcome measures, 275–276
outcome measurement, 276–278
ASSIST. See American Stop Smoking Intervention Study
Atherosclerosis, 63
Autonomic nervous system, 62
allostasis in, 45
B
Behavior
health-related interventions affecting individual, 9–11
Behavior change, 333–335
maintaining, 334–335
models of, 183–191
producing, 333–334
Behavioral disease factors
anger, 65
anxiety, worry, and hope, 67
in cardiovascular health and disease, 64–67
depression, 66–67
hostility, 64–65
vital exhaustion, 65–66
Behavioral factors affecting health, 27, 37– 178
Behavioral intervention studies, of individuals, lessons from, 209
Behavioral interventions, funding supporting long-duration efforts for, 16, 348
Behavioral risk factors, 5–6, 87–137, 197–200
addressing, 197–200
alcohol consumption, 102–107
disease screening practices, 113–121
family and, 211
obesity, physical activity, and diet, 92– 102
sexual practices, 107–113
tobacco use, 87–92
unemployment, 155–156
Behavioral variables, integrating into interdisciplinary research, 16, 348
Bereavement, health and immunity effects of, 57
Biobehavioral factors in health and disease, 4–5, 39–86
brain as interpreter, regulator, and target, 47–51
cardiovascular health and disease, 61–67
defining, 20
developmental trajectories, 68–70
factors influencing long-term effects of stress, 57–61
immune system function in health and disease, 51–57
stress, health, and disease, 40–47
Biological risk factors, 27, 37–178
Biological variables, interdisciplinary research into integrating, 16, 348
Biosocial factors in health and disease, defining, 20–21
Blood cholesterol, screening for high, 115– 116
Bogalusa Heart Study, 70
Bone mineral density, 100
Bootheel Heart Health Project, 203
Brain function
arousal and memory modulation, 49–51
as interpreter, regulator, and target, 47– 51
neurotransmitters, experience, and behavior, 48–49
Breast cancer screening, 119–120
British Regional Heart Study, 155
Buffering, positive social relations providing, 146
C
Calcium intake, 100–101
Canadian Ministry of Health, 243
Cancer, 99–100
addressing psychosocial risk factors for, 195–196
depression linked with, 66
diet linked with, 100
sexually transmitted infections and, 110
Cancer screening
breast, 119–120
cervical, 117
colorectal, 117–118
prostate, 118–119
Cannon, Walter, 40
Capital. See Social capital
Capitated financing, for managed-care organizations, 303
Cardiac arrhythmia, 276
Cardiovascular disease, 98–99
cardiovascular health and, 61–67
effect of social isolation on risk of, 24
produced by chronic social stress, 62
stress and cardiovascular function in, 61–63
Caregivers
interventions for, 219–220
of relatives with progressive dementia, 7
CATCH. See Child and Adolescent Trial of Cardiovascular Health
Catecholamines, 44
CBA. See Cost/benefit analysis
CD4 cells, 148
CEA. See Cost-effectiveness analysis
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 256
Cervical cancer screening, 117
Change
assumptions about, 253
behavioral, 333–335
organizational, 242–243
theories of, 252–254
Chemical work hazards, 12
Child and Adolescent Trial of Cardiovascular Health (CATCH), 208
Children, stress in, 68–70
Children with chronic disease, 212–218
family therapy for, 217–218
interventions affecting family relationship quality and functioning, 215–217
psychoeducational interventions for, 212–215
Cholesterol screening, 116
CHPGP. See Community Health Promotion Grant Program
Chronic disease, 10
interventions for adults and elderly, 218–219
interventions for children and adolescents, 212–218
Chronic social stress, cardiovascular disease produced by, 62
Cigarette-smoking
early data on, 19
measuring the public health burden of, 88–89
primary prevention of, 91–92
Civic association membership, density of, 164
Classic conditioning, 184–186
Clinical interventions, 192–200, 335–338
addressing behavioral risk factors, 197– 200
addressing psychosocial risk factors, 194–197
adherence in, 192–194
cost-effectiveness of, 337
on individuals, 192–200
need for research on practice, 200
in tobacco use, 335–338
Clinical research findings, presentation to consumers, 297–298
Cognitive social learning model, 186–187
Cognitive theory, 187
Cohesion. See Social cohesion
“Collective efficacy,” 165
Colorectal cancer screening, 117–118
Committee on Health and Behavior, 2, 20, 27
report organization, 33
task statement of, 27–31
underlying assumptions of, 27
Communicating risk information, to consumers , 294–297
Communities and health, 13–14, 250–254
community-level constructs, 252
geography versus identity and action, 252
interventions for, 13–14, 241–273
Communities of identity, 251
Community-based group dissemination, 304–307
community and organizational readiness for, 305–306
of effective community interventions, 304–305
of interventions in tobacco use, 338–339
research on, 306–307
Community-based participatory research, 285–288
Community Health Promotion Grant Program (CHPGP), 204
Community Intervention Trial (COMMIT) for Smoking Cessation, 203, 205, 308
Community-level interventions, 13–14, 254–258
East Side Village Health Worker Partnership, 256–257
evaluating, 282–283
lessons from community change interventions, 257–258
Tenderloin Senior Organizing Project, 255–256
theories of change for, 252–254
Community socioeconomic standing,
effects on mortality and morbidity, 8
Community-wide trials, 201–205
large-scale studies, 201–203
small-scale studies, 203–204
Conceptualization of SES, 143–145
general susceptibility versus disease specificity, 144
reverse causation and social selection, 145
Concurrent interventions at multiple levels, individual, family, community, and society, 17, 348– 349
Conditioning, 184–186
Constraints on health, governmental and societal, 260
Constructs, community-level, 252
Consumer dissemination, 294–300
for communicating risk information, 294–297
for presentation of clinical research findings, 297–298
for shared decision making, 298–300
Continuous-improvement models, 199
Coping
facilitated by optimism, 59
with long-term effects of stress, 24, 58– 60
psychosocial aspects of, 31, 333
Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults, 162
Coronary heart disease
addressing psychosocial risk factors for, 196–197
hostility linked to, 5
Coronary Primary Prevention Trial (CPPT), 297
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), 48–49
Cost/benefit analysis (CBA), 293
Cost-effectiveness, 337
Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA), 291– 293
Counseling, promoting primary prevention measures, 9
CPPT. See Coronary Primary Prevention Trial
CRH. See Corticotropin-releasing hormone
Current Concepts of Positive Mental Health, 23
Cytokines, pleiotropy of, 55
D
Decision making, shared with consumers, 298–300
“Demand/control” model, 152
Dementia, caregivers of relatives with, 7, 220
Depression, 66–67
associated with susceptibility to diseases, 4–5
linked with cancer, 66
“subsyndromal,” 22
Deprivation, relative, 160–161
Determinants of health, model of, 25–26
Developmental links, 68–70
Diabetes mellitus, addressing psychosocial risk factors for, 194–195
Diagnostic thresholds, changing, 3
Diet, 92–102
and adult weight gain, 96–97
early data on, 19
prevalence and trends, 93–95
weight and disease, 97–102
Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee, 97
Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 103
Direct political power, versus relative, 163
Discrimination, social inequalities of, 161– 163
Disease.
See also individual disease conditions
Disease factors.
See also Transmission associated with susceptibility, 4
biobehavioral, 39–86
in cardiovascular health and disease, behavioral, 64–67
psychosocial, 64–67
Disease management, families and, 210–211
Disease screening practices, 113–121
breast cancer screening, 119–120
cervical cancer screening, 117
colorectal cancer screening, 117–118
primary versus secondary prevention, 114–115
prostate cancer screening, 118–119
screening for hypertension and high blood cholesterol, 115–116
screening for sexually transmitted diseases, 120–121
Disproportionate affliction, of sexually transmitted infections, 110–112
Dissemination, 274–327
to community-based groups, 304–307
to consumers, 294–300
through interorganizational linkages, 307–309
through organizations, 301–304
Distribution, of medical care, 141
Drinking, 102–107
linked with smoking, 6
negative health effects, 103–104
positive health effects, 104–105
quantifying net public health benefit, 105–107
socioeconomic factors in, 102–103
DSM-IV, 22
E
East Side Village Health Worker Partnership (ESVHWP), 256–257
Ecological approach, to healthy behavior research, 28–29
Economic adversity, relational strengths protecting against, 7
Educational interventions, 195
promoting primary prevention measures, 9
Effective clinical interventions, 280–281
Effective community interventions,
disseminating to community-based groups, 304–305
Effectiveness, intervention studies
including measures determining, 17, 349
Elderly with chronic disease, interventions for, 218–219
Electronic medication monitors, 193
Emotions, writing about, 60
Employee health behaviors.
See also Job-related risk factors;
Worksite trials changing, 244–245
Endocrine effects, on the immune system, 53
Engineering strategies, 246
Enhancing Recovery in Coronary Heart Disease (ENRICHD) trials, 197
Environmental risk factors, 245–249
Environments
constraining individual health choices, 7
toxic, 141
Ergonomic work hazards, 12
ESVHWP. See East Side Village Health Worker Partnership
Evaluating clinical interventions, 279– 281, 337–338
for efficacy and effectiveness, 280–281
evidence-based medicine, 279–280
Evaluating intervention research, 274–327
cost-effectiveness evaluation, 291–293
disseminating, 294–309
Evaluating interventions, 275–291
clinical, 279–281
community-level, 282–289
governmental, 290–291, 343–345
outcomes of, 275–278
Evaluation design, 284
Evaluation models, 309
Evidence-based medicine, 279–280
Evidence hierarchies, 279
Excise taxes, 343
Extinction, versus original learning, 185– 186
F
Families and health, 11–12, 209–211
families and disease management, 210– 211
family and behavioral risk factors, 211
health-related interventions for, 11–12, 183–240
models and interventions, 183–240
models of behavior change, 183–191
Family interaction interventions, 211–221
for adults and elderly with chronic disease, 218–219
for caregivers, 219–220
for children and adolescents with chronic disease, 212–218
family therapy, 217–218
relationship quality and functioning, 215–217
Family intervention studies, lessons from, 220–221
Fecal occult blood test (FOBT), 117–118
“Fight or flight,” 40
Findings and recommendations, 16–18, 348–350
application of research results, 347
behavior change, 333–335
for concurrent interventions at multiple levels, 17, 348–349
for funding supporting long-duration efforts, 16, 348
interactions among risk factors, 331– 333
for interdisciplinary research, 16, 348
intervention in tobacco use, 335–347
for intervention studies, 16, 17, 348, 349
for program planners and policy makers, 17–18, 349–350
for resource allocation to health promotion and disease prevention, 17, 349
5-A-Day Campaign, 261
Flexible sigmoidoscopy, 117–118
FOBT. See Fecal occult blood test
Food, affordability of, 259
“Force field analysis,” 243
FORECAST model, 309
Funding supporting long-duration efforts,
for behavioral and psychosocial
G
Gender, and long-term effects of stress, 60
General Social Surveys, 164
Geography, versus identity and action, 252
Gini coefficient, 158–159
Government interventions, assessing, 290–291
Government level anti-tobacco interventions, 339–345
evaluation studies, 343–345
media campaigns, 340–342
tobacco taxes, 343
Governmental constraints on health, 260
Guide to Clinical Preventive Services, 114
H
HBM. See Health belief model
Health
biological, behavioral, and social factors affecting, 37–178
measurement of, 21–25
model of determinants of, 25–26
Health and Behavior: Frontiers of Research in the Biobehavioral Sciences (1982 report), 19–20, 331
updating, 27
Health behaviors, changing employee, 244–245
Health belief model (HBM), 187–188
Health Care Financing Administration, 291
Health care systems, resource allocation to health promotion and disease prevention by, 17, 349
Health communication campaigns, 261–262
Health-enhancing behaviors, promoting with positive social relations, 147
Health-related interventions, 8–15, 179–327
for communities, 13–14, 241–273
evaluating and disseminating intervention research on, 274–327
for individuals, 9–11, 183–240
for organizations, 12–13, 241–273
Health targets, 260–261
Healthy behavior research
ecological approach to, 28–29
program planners and policy makers modifying societal conditions to enable, 17–18, 349–350
Healthy diet, linked with physical activity, 6
Heart Partners program, 308
Hemoglobin A1C, 216–217
High blood cholesterol, screening for, 115–116
HIV
importance of behavior to health, 20
psychological states associated with, 20
Homeostasis, 40
Hope, 67
a component of psychological well-being, 5
Hostility, 64–65
associated with susceptibility to diseases, 4
linked to coronary heart disease, 5
HSPP. See Hutchinson Smoking Prevention Project
Human capital, underinvestment in, 160
Hutchinson Smoking Prevention Project (HSPP), 207, 339, 346
Hypertension, 219
screening for, 115–116
I
Identity. See Communities of identity
Immune system, 44
effects on the nervous system, 53–55
function in health and disease, 51–57
integrated with other physiological systems, 4
neural and endocrine effects on, 53
stress and function of, 55–57
Immunity, neuroendocrine regulation of, 54
Improving Prevention through Organization, Vision, and Empowerment (IMPROVE) trials, 199
Individual interventions, 183–240
clinical, 192–200
lessons from behavioral studies of, 209
models and, 183–240
population-based, 200–208
Individuals
concurrent interventions for, 17, 348– 349
environments constraining health choices of, 7
families and health, 209–211
models of behavior change for, 183–191
Inequalities, 157–165
in people and places, 157–161
in race, and discrimination, 161–163
in social cohesion and social capital, 163–165
Inflammatory responses, effect on nervous system, 53–55
Innovations, relative advantage of, 305– 306
Interactions, among risk factors, 331–333
Interdisciplinary research, into integrating biological, psychological, behavioral, and social variables, 16, 348
Interorganizational linkages, 307–309
Interpersonal trust, level of, 164
Intersections, of health and behavior, 25– 27
Intervention case study on tobacco, 15, 335–347
clinical intervention, 335–338
community-based intervention, 338– 339
government level intervention, 339– 345
practical solutions, 345–347
Intervention research, 274–327
behavioral, lessons from, 209
cost-effectiveness evaluation of, 291– 293
dissemination of, 294–309
including measures determining effectiveness, 17, 349
into modifying social and psychological factors, 16, 348
Interventions, 8–15
in chronic disease, 212–219
educational, 195
evaluating, 275–291
legal, 290–291
psychosocial, 195–196
targeted at family interactions, 211–221
targeted at individuals, 191–209
targeted at organizations, 243–250
Isolation. See Social isolation
J
Job-related risk factors, 152–153, 156
job strain, 152–153
threat of job loss, 156
Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure, 115
K
Kaiser Family Foundation, 204
L
Learning, original, versus extinction, 185– 186
Learning and conditioning model, 184– 186
Legal interventions, 290–291
Life expectancy, 61
Life Skills Training (LST) program, 207
Life stress, 51
Lifespan and lifecourse development, 32
Lifestyle Heart Trial, 192
Lipid Research Clinics Coronary Primary Prevention Trials, 192
Long-term effects of stress, early development influence on, 46–47
Long-term resources, establishing and maintaining, through positive social relations, 149
LST. See Life Skills Training program
M
Maintaining behavior change, 334–335
Managed-care organization, 303
Management. See Disease management
Marital discord, health and immunity effects of, 56
Material conditions, 141
distribution of medical care, 141
toxic physical environments, 141
Measurement of health, 21–25
positive health concept, 23–25
time dimension of, 23
Measurement of SES, 143–145
general susceptibility versus disease specificity, 144
reverse causation and social selection, 145
Media campaigns, government level anti-tobacco interventions, 340–342
Medical care, distribution of, 141
Medical practices, dissemination through, 303–304
Medication regimens, nonadherence to, 19, 333
Memory modulation, arousal and, 49–51
Memory processes, 50
Minnesota Heart Health Program (MHHP), 201–202, 208
Models of behavior change, 183–191
cognitive social learning, 186–187
health belief model, 187–188
learning and conditioning, 184–186
social action theory, 190
stages-of-change model/ transtheoretical model, 188–190
theory of reasoned action, 188
Models of determinants of health, 25–26
Models of health-related interventions for individuals and families, 183–240
for organizations, communities, and society, 241–273
Models of planned change, 243
Modulation, of memory with arousal, 49–51
Morbidity data, 21
Mortality data, 21
MRFIT. See Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial
Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis, 193
Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT), 139, 143, 191–192
Musculoskeletal health, 100–102
Myocardial infarction, vital exhaustion a predictor of, 65
N
National Cancer Institute (NCI), 117, 203, 261, 275, 302, 308, 339
National Health and Nutrition Examination Study, 70
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), 202, 275
National Institute for Dental Research (NIDR) , 307
National Institutes of Health, 27
National Longitudinal Mortality Study (NLMS), 139
National Opinion Research Center, 164
National Surveys of Worksite Health Promotion Activities, 205
Natural killer-cell cytotoxicity (NKCC), 57
Negative health effects, of alcohol consumption, 103–104
Negative social relations, 149–151
adverse interactions, 150–151
isolation, 149–150
Nervous system, effects of inflammatory and immune responses on, 53–55
Neural effects, on the immune system, 53
Neurobiology, advances in, 48
Neuroendocrine regulation, of immunity, 54
Neuroendocrine responses, 42
Neurotransmitters, experience and behavior, 48–49
NHLBI. See National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
NIDR. See National Institute for Dental Research
NKCC. See Natural killer-cell cytotoxicity
NLMS. See National Longitudinal Mortality Study
NNH. See Number needed to harm
NNT. See Number needed to treat
North Karelia Project, 201
Number needed to harm (NNH), calculating, 298
Number needed to treat (NNT), calculating, 297–298
Nurses Cohort Study, 98
O
Obesity, 92–102
adult weight gain, 96–97
prevalence and trends, 93–95
socioeconomic factors in, 95–96
weight and disease, 97–102
Objectives for the Nation, 260
Observability, of innovations, 306
Occupational risk factors, 151–157
job strain, 152–153
retirement, 156–157
threatened job loss, 156
unemployment, 153–156
Occupational safety and health (OSH) programs, 12, 245–246
OD. See Organizational development
Operant-conditioning theory, 184–187
Optimism
a component of psychological well-being, 5
coping facilitated by, 59
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 156
Organizational change interventions, potential targets for, 247
Organizational development (OD), 242–243
Organizational dissemination, 301–304
through medical practices, 303–304
through schools, 301–302
Organizational interventions, 12–13, 241–273
changing employee health behaviors, 244–245
communities and health, 250–254
community-level interventions, 254–258
lessons from, 250
organizations and health, 241–243
reducing environmental risk factors, 245–249
society and health, 258–260
society-level interventions, 260–264
Organizational readiness, in disseminations to community-based groups, 305–306
Organizations and health, 241–243
organizational culture, 242–243
planned-change models, 243
Original learning, versus extinction, 185–186
Osteoarthritis, 101
Outcome measurement, 275–278
choice of measures, 275–276
Outcomes assessment, 22
Overweight. See Obesity
P
Panel on Cost-Effectiveness in Health and Medicine, 278
Pap smear, 117
PAR. See Participatory action research PARR. See Physical Activity for Risk Reduction Project
Participatory action research (PAR), 249
Pawtucket Heart Health Program (PHHP), 201–202
People, social inequalities of, 157–161
Pessimistic thinking, 5
PHHP. See Pawtucket Heart Health Program
Physical activity, 92–102
and adult weight gain, 96–97
linked with healthy diet, 6
prevalence and trends, 93–95
weight and disease, 97–102
Physical Activity for Risk Reduction (PARR) Project, 204
Physical environments, toxic, 141
Physical morbidity, from unemployment, 155
Physical work hazards, 12
Physiological processes, altering with positive social relations, 147–149
Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, 157
Place, social inequalities of, 157–161
Planned-change models, 243
Pleiotropy, of cytokines, 55
Policy makers, modifying societal conditions to enable healthy behavior and social relationships, 17–18, 349–350
Population-based interventions, 200–208
community-wide trials, 201–205
by individual, 200–208
school trials, 206–208
worksite trials, 205–206
components of, 23
difficulty assessing, 24
Positive health effects, of alcohol consumption, 104–105
Positive social interactions, 146–149
altering physiological processes, 147–149
buffering, 146
establishing and maintaining long-term resources, 149
promoting health-enhancing behaviors, 147
Postintervention assessment, 217
PPIP. See Put Prevention Into Practice program
Practice in clinical interventions, need for research on, 200
Preintervention assessment, 217
Prenatal stress, handling, 46
Prevalence
of obesity, 93–95
of sexually transmitted infections, 108
Preventing Tobacco Use Among Young People, 92
Prevention
of cigarette-smoking, primary, 91–92
primary versus secondary, 114–115
of sexually transmitted infections, 112–113
Primary prevention, versus secondary, 114–115
Produce for Better Health Foundation, 261
Producing behavior change, 333–334
Program planners, modifying societal conditions to enable healthy behavior and social relationships, 17–18, 349–350
Prostate cancer screening, 118–119
Psychoeducational interventions, 212–215
Psychological factors, intervention studies into modifying, 16, 348
Psychological variables, interdisciplinary research into integrating, 16, 348
Psychological well-being, hope and optimism as components of, 5
Psychoneuroimmunology, 20
Psychosocial aspects of coping, 31
Psychosocial disease factors
anger, 65
anxiety, worry, and hope, 67
in cardiovascular health and disease, 64–67
depression, 66–67
hostility, 64–65
vital exhaustion, 65–66
Psychosocial interventions, 195–196
funding supporting long-duration efforts for, 16, 348
Psychosocial risk factors, 142–143, 194–197
for cancer, 195–196
for coronary disease, 196–197
for diabetes mellitus, 194–195
psychosocial context, 142
relationship to health-related behaviors and biological risk factors, 143
Psychosocial work hazards, 12–13
Public health
burden of cigarette-smoking, measuring, 88–89
national concern about consequences of tobacco use, 20
quantifying net benefit of alcohol consumption, 105–107
Public health interventions, 14
Public health systems, resource allocation to health promotion and disease prevention by, 17, 349
Purpose in life, having a sense of, 24
Put Prevention Into Practice (PPIP) program, 304
Q
QALY. See Quality-adjusted life year
Quality-adjusted life year (QALY), measuring by, 276–278, 293, 337
Quantifying net public health benefit, of alcohol consumption, 105–107
R
Race, social inequalities of, 161–163
Randomized clinical trials (RCTs), 279– 282
RCTs. See Randomized clinical trials
Readiness for dissemination, with community-based groups, 305–306
Reasoned action, theory of, 188
Recommendations. See Findings and recommendations
Regulatory approaches, 262
Relapse rates, 193
Relational strengths, protecting against economic adversity, 7
Relative advantage, of innovations, 305–306
Relative political power, versus direct, 163
Relaxation training, 197
Religious belief, 165–166
Research evidence hierarchy, 279
Research findings.
See also Studies
presentation to consumers, 297–298
Resilience, 31
differential, 5
and long-term effects of stress, 57–58
Resource allocation to health promotion and disease prevention, by public health and health care systems, 17, 349
Retirement, 156–157
Reverse causation, in the
conceptualization and measurement of SES, 145
Risk factors, 3–8
behavioral, 5–6, 87–137, 197–200
biobehavioral, 4–5
environmental, 245–249
interactions among, 331–333
psychosocial, 142–143, 194–197
Risk information, communicating to consumers, 294–297
Risk ratio information, communicating, 297
Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 27
Robin Hood index, 159
S
Schools
dissemination through, 11, 301–302
trials in, 206–208
Screening. See Disease screening practices
Second-hand smoke, consequences of, 90
Secondary prevention, versus primary, 114–115
Sedentary lifestyles, 96
early data on, 19
“Self,” distinguishing from “nonself,” 52
Self-control, 27
Self-regard, having high, 25
Self-regulation, 186–187
Selye, Hans, 40
Serotonin system, 48–49
SES. See Socioeconomic status
Sexual practices, 107–113
contributing factors that affect transmission, 108–110
Sexually transmitted diseases
and cancer, 110
disproportionate affliction of, 110–112
prevalence of, 108
prevention of, 112–113
screening for, 120–121
SFCP. See Stanford Five City Project
Shared decision making, involving consumers, 298–300
Sigmoidoscopy, 117–118
benefits of ceasing, 92
consequences of second-hand smoke, 90
factors associated with, 5, 258
linked with drinking, 6
major related diseases, 89–90
measuring the public health burden of, 88–89
primary prevention of, 91–92
socioeconomic factors in, 90–91
SMR. See Standard mortality ratio
Social-Action Theory, 190–191
Social capital, social cohesion and, 163–165
Social Cognitive-Learning Theory, 190
Social cohesion
erosion of, 160
and social capital, 163–165
Social factors affecting health, 14–15, 27, 37–178
intervention studies into modifying, 16, 348
occupational factors, 151–157
religious belief, 165–166
social inequalities, 157–165
social networks and social support, 145–151
and socioeconomic status, 139–145
Social inequalities, 157–165
in people and places, 157–161
in race, and discrimination, 161–163
in social cohesion and social capital, 163–165
Social influences, on long-term effects of stress, 60–61
Social interactions
adverse, 150–151
positive, 146–149
Social isolation, 149–150
effect on risk of cardiovascular disease, 24
Social Learning Theory, 187
Social networks and social support, 7–8, 145–151
negative social relations, 149–151
positive social relations, 146–149
Social patterning, 6
Social relationships
high quality, 23–24
program planners and policy makers modifying societal conditions to enable improved, 17–18, 349–350
Social risk factors, 6–8, 138–178
large scale studies of, 19
Social selection, in the conceptualization and measurement of SES, 145
Social stress, cardiovascular disease produced by chronic, 62
Social variables, interdisciplinary research into integrating, 16, 348
Societal conditions, program planners and policy makers modifying, 17–18, 349–350
Societal constraints on health, 260
Society and health, 258–260
governmental and societal constraints on health, 260
and health-related interventions, 14–15, 241–273
Society-level interventions, 260–264
addressing socioeconomic status and health, 262–264
health communication campaigns, 261–262
health targets, 260–261
regulatory approaches, 262
Socioeconomic status (SES), 139–145, 332
and alcohol consumption, 102–103
conceptualization and measurement of, 143–145
and health, 262–264
material conditions affecting, 141
and obesity, 95–96
psychosocial risk factors from, 142–143
and smoking, 90–91
Stages-of-Change Model, 188–190
Standard mortality ratio (SMR), 153–154
Stanford Five City Project (SFCP), 201–202
Stanford Three Community Study, 201–202
Stress factors, 31, 40–47, 57–61
allostasis and allostatic load, 41–42
and cardiovascular function, 61–63
coping with, 58–60
early development influence on long-term effects of, 46–47
gender, 60
and immune system function, 55–57
and resilience, 57–58
social influences, 60–61
Stress in children, 68–70
Stress management, 197
Stress mediators, protective and damaging effects of, 42–46
Stress response, 40–41
and development of allostatic load, 43
Studies
boundaries of present, 31–33
disseminating to community-based groups, 306–307
generalizing current, 2
of health-related interventions, 274–327
large-scale, 201–203
small-scale, 203–204
Substance abuse, 31
early data on, 19
Susceptibility to diseases
anger associated with, 4
depression associated with, 4
general, versus disease specificity, 144
hostility associated with, 4
vital exhaustion associated with, 4
Symptoms, varieties of, 22–23
Systems theory, 242
T
T cells, 57
Taxes, on tobacco, 343
Technology Assessment Panel, 334
Tenderloin Senior Organizing Project (TSOP), 255–256
Theories of change, for community-level interventions, 252–254
“Theory-based evaluation,” 254
Theory of Reasoned Action, 188
Thresholds, changing diagnostic, 3
Time dimension of health, 23
Tobacco Institute, 344
Tobacco taxes, 343
Tobacco use, 87–92
benefits of smoking cessation, 92
consequences of second-hand smoke, 90
major smoking-related diseases, 89–90
measuring the public health burden of cigarette-smoking, 88–89
national concern about public health consequences of, 20
primary prevention of cigarette-smoking, 91–92
socioeconomic factors in, 90–91
Toxic physical environments, 141
Transmission, sexual practices that affect, 108–110
Transtheoretical Model, 188–190
Trends in obesity, 93–95
Trialability, of innovations, 306
TSOP. See Tenderloin Senior Organizing Project
Tuberculosis, multi-drug-resistant, 193
Type A behavior, 64
U
Unemployment, 153–156
biological and behavioral risk factors from, 155–156
physical morbidity from, 155
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 205
U.S. Epidemiologic Catchment Area, 156
U.S. National Longitudinal Mortality Study, 154
U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, 113, 115, 117–120, 304
U.S. Public Health Service, 113, 346
V
Village Health Workers (VHWs), 257
Vital exhaustion, 65–66
associated with susceptibility to diseases, 4
predictor of myocardial infarction, 65
W
Weight and disease, 6, 97–102.
See also Obesity
cancer, 99–100
cardiovascular disease, 98–99
musculoskeletal health, 100–102
Well-being
measures of, 22
psychological, hope and optimism as components of, 5
WHO. See World Health Organization
WHP. See Working Healthy Project
Willpower, 27
Working Healthy Project (WHP), 206
Working Well trial, 205–206
Worksite trials, 205–206
World Health Organization (WHO), 21, 88, 261, 263
Worry, 67
Writing about emotions, 60
