Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems (2001)
Chapter: Index
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Appendix G: Description of Studies Estimating Marine Reserve Area Requirements
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Barents Sea, 249
Baseline and benchmark studies, 27, 78, 153
Belize, 130
Benthic habitat,
see Seabeds
Bering Sea, 164
Biodiversity, general, ix , xi , 1, 3, 4-5, 7, 10, 11, 13, 17, 21, 22, 32, 49, 72, 81-84, 138-139, 149, 164, 171-172, 179-180, 181, 237, 238, 243, 245
see also Extinction;
Genetic diversity;
Rare, threatened, and endangered speciesbenthic habitat, 24
bycatch and, 32
defined, 214
location of reserves, 99-102, 103, 105, 107, 181
monitoring, 130
recommendations, 177-178
Shannon-Weiner diversity, 85-87
Bioeconomic models, 144, 249, 251, 252
Biogeographic factors, 5, 68, 69, 137, 143, 149, 177, 180, 254-255
location of reserves, 98-106 (passim)
Biomass
spawning stock biomass, 61, 101, 175, 180, 218, 249, 250, 252, 253
stock, general, 27, 32, 49, 55, 72, 75, 79, 80, 81, 85-87, 90, 93, 112, 116, 128, 131, 144, 178, 250-253 (passim)
Biomass overflow,
see Spillover
Birds,
see Waterfowl
Body size, fish, 27, 32, 35, 36, 38, 41, 75, 76, 79, 80, 81, 85-87, 88, 90, 93-94, 124, 131, 144, 172, 174-175, 177
Bottom trawling, 13, 22, 24, 74, 96, 110, 119-120, 165
Buffer zones, 94, 116, 177
cost-benefit analysis, 48
defined, 214
Bycatch, 3, 5, 22, 23, 26, 31-32, 34, 111, 175, 178
see also Discards area closures, 23, 24
defined, 31-32
red snapper, Gulf of Mexico, 73
uncertainty, 41
California, 107, 124, 151, 165, 166, 170, 171
Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary, 106, 159, 170
Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, 159
National Estuarine Research Reserves, 170
wetland losses, 74
Canada, 15, 55, 69, 96
cod, 23, 30, 132, 174, 248
Gulf of Maine, 109
hydrothermal vents, 111
location of reserves, 103
Cape Point Nature Reserve, 100-101
Caribbean Sea, 80, 91, 109, 127, 132, 146, 251
Cuba, 20, 109
Dry Tortugas, 68, 99, 130, 151, 155, 159-160
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS), 12, 20, 64-65, 82, 84, 97, 99, 102, 116, 129, 130, 132, 159, 160
Jamaica, 84, 95-96, 132
St. Lucia, 80, 96, 116, 130
Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary, 106, 159, 170
Chile, 130
Circulation patterns,
see Current and circulation patterns
Clean Water Act, 168, 169, 172, 233
Closures,
see Area closures;
Temporal closures
Coastal Barrens Resources Act, 169
Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA), 74, 151-152, 161, 169, 172, 232
Coastal zones, ix , 2, 3, 4, 13, 21, 28, 40, 42, 77, 123, 166, 171, 184, 253-255
see also Recreational uses;
Regional fishery management councils;
Wetlands
community-level factors, 3, 14, 28, 42, 43, 59, 66-70, 181
estuaries, 13, 21, 38, 74, 77, 103, 105, 160-161, 166, 170, 171, 243
exclusive economic zones, 20, 38, 39, 149, 180, 215
historical perspectives, 43, 146, 149
integrated management, 123, 159
location of reserves, 5, 103, 109-110, 181
migratory species, 38
military reservations, 166
public trust property, 20
size of reserves, 115, 118
temperature factors, 43
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 18, 19
zoning plans, 120, 121, 124, 159
Cod, 30, 35, 38, 55, 76, 95, 113, 114, 132, 140, 174, 248, 249, 250, 252, 254
Georges Bank, 23, 30, 132
Newfoundland, 30
Community-level factors (human), 14, 28, 42, 43, 59, 71, 147, 173, 181-182, 242-245 (passim)
coastal zones, 3, 14, 28, 42, 43, 59, 66-70, 181
definition of community, 66
economic factors, 121, 122;
see also Socioeconomic factors
enforcement and compliance, 12, 66, 67, 70, 102, 181, 183
international community-based approach, 66, 68-69
location of reserves, 97-98
monitoring, 67
partnerships, 66-70
zoning plans, 121, 122
COMPARE (Criteria and Objectives for Marine Protected Area Evaluation), 99-102
Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation and Liability Act, 169
Connectivity, 5, 7, 8, 99, 105, 112, 115-116, 135-138, 144, 155, 177, 255, 234, 255-256
defined, 215
Contingent value method, 51, 52, 63
Convention for the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage, 147
Convention on Biological Diversity, 20, 150
Convention on Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas, 146, 147
Convention on Fishing, 147
Convention on the Continental Shelf, 146, 147
Convention on the High Seas, 146, 147
Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone, 146
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, 146, 147
Coral reefs, 1, 6, 23, 32, 33, 46-47, 72, 74, 77, 95-96, 107, 109, 151, 154, 180, 243, 253
genetic research, 137
larval dispersal, 91
location of reserves, 99, 104-105
monitoring, 127, 130, 132
overfishing, 23, 25
recruitment, 129, 253
size of reserves, 111-112, 114, 116
Coral Reef Task Force, 111
Core areas, 119, 180, 255
defined, 215
Cost and cost-benefit factors, 1, 3, 9, 15, 23, 27-28, 42, 46-66, 72, 142-143, 179, 252, 254-255
see also Nonmarket values
area closures, 55, 58
buffer zones, 48
contingent value method, 51, 52, 63
enforcement, 48, 55, 72, 98, 102, 107, 179
monitoring, 48, 59, 126, 132
overfishing, 61
property rights, 48-49, 59, 60
recreation uses, 48, 51-52, 54, 59
research, 48, 84, 126, 142-143, 251
size of reserves, 113, 114
stock assessments, 41
zoning plans, 48, 121, 122
Criteria and Objectives for Marine Protected Area Evaluation,
see COMPARE
Cuba, 20, 109
Cultural factors, 4, 17, 21, 28-29, 45-46, 48, 59, 67, 156, 181, 233, 237-245(passim)
see also Aesthetics;
Heritage value definitions, 215
ethics, environmental, 43-45, 113, 141-142, 215, 247
freedom of the seas, 2, 10-11, 20
location of reserves, 98
historical sites, 4, 28-29, 45-46, 100-101, 103, 215-216, 237
zoning plans, 118
Current and circulation patterns, 5
location of reserves, 103
terrestrial and marine ecosystems compared, 18
Definitional issues, 214-218, 233
community, 66
ecological reserve, 12, 215
essential fish habitat, 75
fishery reserve, 12
glossary of terms, 214-218
habitat/species management area, 243
location of reserves, 106
managed resource protected area, 245
marine protected area, 1, 11-12, 216, 233, 237
marine reserve . 1, 12, 141, 148, 216, 238
monitoring, 126-127, 216
national park, 240-241
natural monument, 242
networks, 106, 217
protected landscape/seascape, 244
wilderness, 170, 239
Department of Commerce, xi-xii , 234-235
see also National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration;
National Marine Fisheries Service
Department of the Interior, xi-xii , 8, 234-235
see also Fish and Wildlife Service;
National Park Service
Discards, 23, 34, 39
see also Bycatch
uncertainty in estimates of, 41
Dispersal, 5-6, 8, 17, 18-19, 22, 27-28, 75, 84, 94-95, 114, 136-138, 177, 182, 254
density effects on recruitment and growth, 140
larval, 75, 88-92, 133
location of reserves, 98, 99, 105, 109
multispecies and trophic models, 144
sea urchins, 254
size of reserves, 114, 117
spillover, 75, 76, 84, 88, 91, 94-95, 107, 117, 139, 177, 254
tagging studies, 91, 95, 139-140
Diving and dive operators, 32, 42, 46-47, 48, 63, 64, 66, 119, 160, 175
Dredging, 2, 7, 13, 74, 77, 96, 159, 165
Dry Tortugas, 64-65, 68, 99, 130, 151, 155, 159-160
Economic factors, 3, 8, 20, 21, 31, 38-39, 40, 58, 59, 60-66, 74, 244, 245, 249, 252
see also Cost and cost-benefit factors;
Fisheries and fisheries management;
Funding;
Non-market values;
Property rights;
Sustainability
community-level, 28, 181;
see also Socioeconomic factors
location of reserves, 97-98
monitoring, 126, 127, 131, 134-135
public opinion, environmental values vs , 44
research, 4, 234;
see also Funding
zoning plans, 121, 122
Ecosystem-based approach/management, general, 1, 5, 7, 10, 15, 17, 31, 32, 40, 126, 142, 154-155, 172-173, 175-176, 237, 239
see also Biodiversity;
Genetic diversity defined, 215
location of reserves, 99, 104
monitoring, 129
unexploited species, 138
zoning plans, 120
Education,
see Internet;
Professional education;
Public education
EEZ,
see Exclusive economic zones
Endangered species,
see Rare, threatened, and endangered species
Endangered Species Act, 166-167, 168, 232
Endeavor Hot Vents Area, 111
Endemism, 19, 104, 110, 136, 177, 255
defined,, 215
hydrothermal vents, 6, 110
Enforcement and compliance, 7, 12, 39, 55, 72, 79, 98, 152, 155, 162, 165, 184, 234, 236
community factors, 12, 66, 67, 70, 102, 181, 183
cost factors, 48, 55, 72, 98, 102, 107, 179
funding, 8, 184
geographic factors, general, 72
historical perspectives, 151
location of reserves, 118
zoning, 121, 122, 123
Environmental Perspective to the Year 2000 and Beyond, 150
Environmental Protection Agency, 184, 235
National Environmental Policy Act, 168, 169, 233
Environmental services, xi , 21, 28, 32, 42, 47-51 (passim), 107, 152, 154, 172, 173, 176, 178, 237, 238, 244-245
Essential fish habitats, 8, 22, 75
Estuaries, 13, 21, 38, 77, 103, 105, 160-161, 166, 171, 243
National Estuarine Research Reserves, 74, 160-161, 170
Ethics, environmental, 43-45, 113, 141-142, 247
defined, 215
Europe, 11
Exclusive economic zones, 20, 38, 39, 149, 180
defined, 215
Executive orders, xi-xii , 8, 96, 107, 166, 171, 232-236
Existence value,
see Heritage value
Exotic species, 11, 77
wetlands, 74
Extinction, 21-22, 77, 83, 110
see also Rare, threatened, and endangered species
allee effect, 93, 114, 214, 254
American Fisheries Society, 19
geographic factors, 77, 83
habitat destruction and, 18
metapopulations, 18, 113, 116, 249
defined, 216
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 18
time factors, 248
Federal government, xi-xii , 4, 153
see also Funding;
Legislation;
specific departments and agencies
cultural landscapes, 46
executive orders, xi-xii , 8, 96, 107, 166, 171, 232-236
interagency coordination, 3, 4, 8, 171, 175, 183-184, 234-235
military reservations, 166
Federal Land Policy and Management Act, 165
Federal Water Pollution Control Act, 168, 169
Fiji, 130
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, 169
Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), 3, 15, 153, 161-162, 184
Fisheries and fisheries management, ix , xi , 1, 3, 4-5, 13, 14, 22-27, 30-41, 48, 54-69, 154, 162-165, 171, 172, 174-175, 178-179, 246-257
see also Area closures;
Bycatch;
Fishing quotas;
National Marine Fisheries Service;
Regional fishery management councils;
Overfishing;
Replenishment;
Spawning and rearing habitat;
Temporal closures;
Total allowable catch (TAC);
specific species
age structure of stocks, 124, 127, 131, 153, 177, 178
bottom trawling, 13, 22, 24, 74, 96, 110, 119-120, 165
committee study methodology, 15
conventional management, xi , 1, 2-3, 8-9, 13, 14, 15, 23, 27-28, 30-41, 58, 63-66, 77, 105, 112, 143, 174-175, 179, 180
see also Fishing quotas;
Stock assessments
discards, 23, 34, 39, 41;
see also Bycatch
essential fish habitats, 8, 22, 75
exclusive economic zones, 20, 38, 39, 149, 180, 215
fixed exploitation rate strategies, 56-57
gear restrictions, 36, 38, 39, 47, 119-120, 164, 165, 248
location of reserves, 97-98, 99, 100-101, 104, 105, 110, 111
Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, 14, 35, 39, 55, 59, 61, 66, 74-75, 162, 164-165, 175-176, 232
maximum sustainable yield, 33, 35, 40, 174, 216
monitoring, 127-128, 131-132, 134-135, 172
see also Enforcement and compliance;
Stock assessments
open access, 1, 2, 10-11, 20, 31, 44-45, 63, 72, 217, 247, 252
pollution, 2, 75
recreational, 39, 42, 54, 97, 114, 119, 154, 160, 162, 175, 253-254
regional fishery management councils, 26, 38, 39, 60-61, 64, 72, 162-165, 176, 217, 235
research, 7-8, 27-28, 139-141, 143, 144, 172, 176, 247-256;
see also “monitoring” supra
reserve defined, 12
sex ratios, 25, 26, 27, 93-94
size of reserves, 112-117 (passim), 121, 132, 178-179, 243, 255-256
spatial factors, 32, 33-35, 55, 56, 58, 59, 127-128, 131, 183;
see also Area closures
sustainability, 14, 28, 30, 32, 33, 46, 49, 59, 74-75, 114, 177-178, 180, 251
maximum sustainable yield, 33, 35, 40, 174, 216
total allowable catch (TAC), 27, 37, 39, 62, 218
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 19
total allowable catch (TAC), 27, 37, 39, 62, 218
uncertainty, 38-39, 40-41, 112, 172, 249
stock assessments, 26-27, 30, 31, 38, 40, 112, 113, 247-248, 249
total allowable catch (TAC), 37
zoning plans, 7, 119, 120, 122-124
Fishing quotas, 23, 26, 27, 36, 37-38, 41, 55, 56
individual fishing quotas, ix , 14, 39, 216
individual transferable quotas, 49, 62, 216
total allowable catch (TAC), 27, 37, 39, 62, 218
Fixed exploitation rate strategies, 56-57
Florida, 109, 151
Dry Tortugas, 64-65, 68, 99, 130, 151, 155, 159-160
Oculina Bank, 72, 82
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS), 12, 20, 64-65, 82, 84, 97, 99, 102, 116, 129, 130, 132, 159, 160
Flounder, 23, 90
Food Security Act, 74
Foreign countries,
see International perspectives;
specific countries
Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act, 165
Forest Service, 165-166
Funding, 233, 234
committee study at hand, 15
enforcement, 8, 184
monitoring, 8, 130
National Marine Sanctuary program, 160
national parks, 155, 157
Galapagos Marine Reserve, 255
Gear restrictions, 36, 38, 39, 47, 119-120, 164, 165, 248
Genetic diversity, 5, 10, 18, 22, 136-137, 142, 156, 175, 238, 239, 255
see also Biodiversity
endemism, 6, 19, 104, 110, 136, 177, 215, 255
dispersal and, 92
sex ratios, 27
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 18, 19
Geneva Conventions on the Law of the Sea, 146, 147
Georges Bank, 12, 23, 30, 132, 165
Geographical factors, 10, 77
see also Area closures;
Networks and networking;
Regional factors;
Regional fishery management councils;
Site identification;
Spatial factors;
Zoning and zoning plans
core areas, 119, 180, 215, 255
extinction, 77, 83
fishery management, general, 38, 55
implementation and enforcement, 72
size of reserves and protected areas, 6, 97, 99, 100-101, 111-118, 121, 130, 132, 178-179, 243, 255-256
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 17-18
Geographic information systems, 46
Glacier Bay, 12, 151, 154, 155, 156-157
Global positioning system, 183
Government role, 3, 239-246 (passim)
see also Federal government;
Funding;
Local government;
Political factors;
Regulatory issues;
State government
interagency coordination, 3, 4, 8, 171, 175, 183-184, 234-235
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, 20, 105
Grotius, Hugo, 2
Groundfish, 55
see also specific species
area closures, 26
fishery reserves, 12
quotas, 26
mixed-species stocks, 30
overfishing, 30, 174
Grouper, 25-26, 94
Guidelines for Establishing Marine Protected Areas , 69, 149, 150
Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories , 149, 237-246
Gulf of Alaska, 164, 250
Gulf of Maine, 109
Gulf of Mexico, 163, 165, 172
grouper, area closures, 26
red snapper, 73, 252
Habitat areas of particular concern (HAPC), 40, 78, 180
see also Rare, threatened, and endangered species
Habitat maps, 5, 105
Halibut, 26, 31, 55
Hardin, Garitt, 20, 44
Hawaii, 170-171
Hedonic analysis, 50-51, 52
Herbivores, 19, 82, 95-96, 129, 130
Heritage value (existence value), 4, 17, 28-29, 32, 42-43, 47, 52, 61, 63, 98, 103, 154-155, 176, 183-184, 242
defined, 215-216
historical sites, 4, 28-29, 45-46, 100-101, 103, 215-216, 237
Historical perspectives, 11, 16, 17, 39, 55, 145-173
coastal zones, 43, 146, 149
endangered species, 5, 18
enforcement, 151
freedom of the seas, 2, 10-11, 20
public property rights, 20, 44-45
sanctuaries, 145-151, 155-170
terrestrial vs marine area conservation, 17
wetlands, 2, 146, 147
Historical sites, 4, 28-29, 45-46, 100-101, 103, 215-216, 237
Hydrothermal vents, 6, 110-111, 180
IUCN,
see World Conservation Union
Individual fishing quotas, ix , 14, 39
defined, 216
Individual transferable quotas, 49, 62
defined, 216
Institutional factors, 3, 8, 41, 123, 239-246 (passim)
see also Enforcement and compliance;
Government role;
Integrated management;
Regional fishery management councils;
Regulatory issues
cost-benefit analysis, 48
interagency coordination, 3, 4, 8, 171, 175, 183-184, 234-235
national parks, 241;
see also National Park Service
zoning plans, 121-122
Integrated management, 2, 4, 12, 13, 66, 68, 69, 148, 175, 181, 234
coastal zones, 123, 159
cultural landscapes, 45
defined, 216
location of reserves, 5
models, 63
national, 40
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 20
International Maritime Organization, 20
International perspectives, 16, 20, 70, 145-151, 184, 236
see also specific countries ;
terms beginning “United Nations” and “World”
community-based approach, 66, 68-69
conventions, 20, 146-150 (passim)
coordination, 4, 66, 68-69
essential fish habitat, 75
Europe, 11
fisheries, 3, 20, 39, 145-146
exclusive economic zones, 20, 38, 39, 149, 180, 215
historical perspectives, 145-151;
see also “conventions” supra
hydrothermal vents, 110-111
jurisdictional issues, 3, 108-109, 111, 148;
see also “exclusive economic zones” supra
location of reserves, 108-109, 110-111
monitoring, 130
replenishment, 76
International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN),
see World Conservation Union
Internet
Alaskan areas, 166
Gulf of Maine, 109
hydrothermal vents, 110-111
international conventions, 146
migratory waterfowl, 161-162
National Estuarine Research Reserves, 161
National Marine Sanctuary program, 160
rockfish, 24
InterRidge program, 110-111
Invasive species,
see Exotic species
Jamaica, 84, 95-96, 132
Kelp, 22, 75, 105, 129, 133, 181
Kenya, 127, 129, 130
Key Largo, 97
Larval stage, 24, 28, 76, 137, 143-144
dispersal, 75, 88-92, 133
recruitment, 93-94, 132
replenishment, 91, 133
seabeds, 24, 91
sedentary and nonmigratory species, 19
temperature factors, 88
Law of the Sea,
see Geneva Conventions on the Law of the Sea;
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
Legislation, 107, 151-152, 162, 184
Archaeological Resources Protection Act, 169
Clean Water Acts, 168, 169, 172, 233
Coastal Barrens Resources Act, 169
Coastal Zone Management Act, 74, 151-152, 161, 169, 172, 232
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act, 169
Endangered Species Act, 166-167, 168, 232
Federal Land Policy and Management Act, 165
Federal Water Pollution Control Act, 168, 169
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, 169
Food Security Act, 74
Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act, 165
Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, 14, 35, 39, 55, 59, 61, 66, 74-75, 162, 164-165, 175-176, 232
Marine Mammal Protection Act, 166-167, 168-169, 232
Marine Plastics Pollution Research and Control Act, 169
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act, 155-160, 169
Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act, 165
National Environmental Policy Act, 168, 169, 233
National Historic Preservation Act, 46, 232
National Marine Sanctuaries Act, 78, 232
National Park Service Organic Act, 232
National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act, 232
National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act, 162
Ocean Dumping Act, 168, 169
Oil Pollution Act, 168, 169
Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, 169, 233
public property rights, 20
various, 165-171, 232-233
Wilderness Act, 169-170, 232
Litigation, 154
Lobsters, 130
Local factors,
see Commnity-level factors
Local government, 172-173, 184
federal coordination with, 4, 8, 171, 184
National Estuarine Research Reserves, 161
Location of reserves,
see Site identification
Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSFCMA), 14, 35, 39, 55, 59, 61, 66, 74-75, 162, 164-165, 175-176, 232
Mangroves, 22, 28, 105, 146
Marine and Coastal Protected Areas: A Guide for Planners and Managers , 150
Marine Mammal Protection Act, 166-167, 168-169, 232
Marine mammals
Marine Mammal Protection Act, 166, 167, 168
sea lions, 40, 169
whales, 51-52, 54, 181
see also Whales
Marine Plastics Pollution Research and Control Act, 169
Marine Protected Area Center, 8, 235
Marine Protected Area Federal Advisory Committee, 235
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act, 155-160, 169
MARPOL,
see International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
Mathematical models and modeling, 36, 56-57, 142, 143-144
Maximum sustainable yield, 33, 35, 40, 174
defined, 216
Mediterranean Sea, 130, 146
Metapopulations, 18, 113, 116, 249
defined, 216
MSFCMA,
see Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act
Mid-Atlantic Regional Fishery Management Council, 38, 163
Migratory species, 34, 95, 95, 143
see also specific species
coastal, 38
fishery management councils, 38
jurisdictional issues, 39
location of reserves, 98-99
size of reserves, 116
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 18
waterfowl, 10, 18, 42, 103, 111, 146, 147, 161-162
Military reservations, 166
Models and modeling, 8, 36, 41, 56-57, 71, 79-95, 140-144 (passim), 247-256 (passim)
bioeconomic, 144, 249, 251, 252
integrated management, 63
location of reserves, 99-102, 107-108
mathematical, 36, 56-57, 142, 143-144
metapopulation, 18, 113, 116, 216, 249
multispecies, 34, 144
single-species, 33, 174-175, 251
size of reserves, 112, 113-114, 116, 117, 178-179
stock assessment, 36, 49, 56-57, 72, 76, 180, 182, 183, 247-248
trophic, 82, 144
Mineral, including oil and natural gas, resources, 2, 7 . 48, 156, 157, 159, 171
location of reserves, 104-105, 110
Oil Pollution Act, 168
Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, 169, 233
Monitoring, 7, 8, 16, 126-135, 138, 182-183, 184, 234, 239
see also Enforcement and compliance;
Research;
Stock assessments area closures, 55, 58, 132
baseline and benchmark studies, 27, 78, 153
biodiversity, 130
community-level, 67
coral reefs, 127, 130, 132
costs, 48, 59, 126, 132
defined, 126-127, 216
economic factors, monitoring of, 126, 127, 131, 134-135
export function, 132-133
fisheries, general, 127-128, 131-132, 134-135, 172
funding, 8, 130
international, 130
location of reserves, 98, 101
National Estuarine Research Reserves, 161
overfishing, 129, 132
pollution, 127, 134
predator/prey relations, 129, 131
public opinion, 126, 127, 131, 134-135
recovery rates, 132, 133-134
recruitment, 128, 131, 132, 133
regional factors, 131, 184
sanctuaries, general, 7, 8, 16, 126-135
size of reserves, 116
social factors, 126, 127, 131, 134-135;
see also “community-level” and “public opinion” supra
socioeconomic factors, 126, 127, 131, 134-135, 216
spatial factors, other, 127-128, 130, 131
systematics, 128, 129, 130, 142, 152
tagging studies, 91, 95, 139-140
temporal factors, 127-128, 130, 131
vessel monitoring systems, 183
Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, 159
MSY,
see Maximum sustainable yield
Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act, 165
Multispecies fisheries, general, 36-37, 40
see also Bycatch
area closures, 23, 124
groundfish, 30
models, 34, 144
zoning plans, 124
National Environmental Policy Act, 168, 169, 233
National Estuary Program, 184
National Estuarine Research Reserves, 74, 160-161, 184, 212
National Forest Service, 153
National Historic Preservation Act, 46, 232
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), 15, 151, 162, 164-165, 169, 175-176, 184
defined, 216
grouper, area closures, 26
red snapper bycatch, Gulf of Mexico, 73
National Marine Sanctuaries Act, 78, 232
National Marine Sanctuary Program, 6, 15, 20, 78, 105, 123, 151, 153, 155-160, 162, 184
see also specific sanctuaries
National Ocean Service, 155, 161
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 3, 8, 15, 64-65, 107, 151, 155, 160, 161, 235
see also National Marine Fisheries Service
National parks, 5, 151, 154-157, 240-241
see also National Marine Sanctuary Program
National Park Service, 3, 15, 151, 153, 154, 156-157, 184
National Park Service Organic Act, 232
National Registry of Historic Places, 46
National Wildlife Refuges, 161-162
National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act, 232
National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act, 162
Nature Conservancy, 170
Natural mortality, 8, 72, 73, 141, 176
predator/prey relationships, 3, 31, 43, 82, 88-89, 95, 129, 131, 175
Networks and networking, 6-7, 152, 170, 176
connectivity, 5, 7, 8, 99, 105, 112, 115-116, 135-138, 144, 155, 177, 215, 255, 234, 255-256
defined, 106, 217
location of reserves, 99, 102, 104, 105-109
migratory waterfowl, 161-162
size of reserves, 112, 115-116
New England Fishery Management Council, 163, 165, 234
New Zealand, 15, 80, 129, 130, 247
Non-market values, 42, 47, 47, 48, 49-54, 59
see also Aesthetics;
Cultural factors;
Environmental services;
Heritage values;
Historical sites;
Recreational uses
contingent value method, 51, 52, 63
hedonic analysis, 50-51, 52
unexploited species, studies of, 138-139
Nonnative species,
see Exotic species
Nontarget species,
see Bycatch
North Pacific Fishery Management Council, 26, 163, 165
Nova Scotia, 96
Nursery habitat,
see Spawning and rearing habitat
Nutrients, 5
agricultural runoff, 3, 11,134, 166, 172
monitoring, 134
recycling, 21
Ocean Dumping Act, 168, 169
Oculina Banks, 72, 82
Oil Pollution Act, 168, 169
Oil resources,
see Mineral, including and oil and natural gas, resources
Olympic National Marine Sanctuary, 159
Open access, 1, 2, 10-11, 20, 31, 44-45, 63, 72, 247, 252
defined, 217
Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, 169, 233
Overfishing, 10, 2, 11, 13, 21, 14, 30-31, 47, 59, 66, 73, 174, 177, 178-179, 251, 252, 253
area closures and, 11, 61, 116
coral reefs, 23, 25
cost-benefit analysis, 61
cultural factors, 2, 10-11, 20
fishery reserves, 12, 23-24
groundfish, 30, 174
grouper, 25
locale of stocks, 5
location of reserves, 111
monitoring, 129, 132
number of stocks, worldwide, 11
Pacific giant clams, 21
size of reserves, 116
zoning plans, 124
Pacific Fishery Management Council, 163, 165
Philippines, 79, 80, 116, 130
Plaice,
see Flounder
Political factors, 3, 38, 42, 47-48, 60-63, 64, 108-109
see also Public opinion
location of reserves, 98
Pollock, 40, 124, 167, 169
Pollution, 2, 3, 6, 77, 123, 78, 159, 166, 170, 235
see also Mineral, including oil and natural gas, resources
agricultural runoff, 3, 11,134, 166, 172
algal blooms, 5, 73
Clean Water Act, 168, 169, 172, 233
fish habitat, 2, 75
location of reserves, 104, 109-110
Marine Plastics Pollution Research and Control Act, 169
monitoring, 127, 134
Ocean Dumping Act, 168, 169
Oil Pollution Act, 168, 169
wetlands, 74
zoning plans, 77-78
Population dynamics, 2-3, 73, 79, 132, 140-141, 143-144
Precautionary approach, 14, 39, 52, 74-75, 113, 165, 180, 176, 249
defined, 217
zoning plans, 123, 124
Predator/prey relationships, 3, 31, 43, 82, 88-89, 95, 175
monitoring, 129, 131
Professional education, 3, 72, 239, 241
see also Internet
Property rights, 61-63, 44, 38, 60, 61-63, 70, 239, 241, 243, 245, 246
cost-benefit analysis, 48-49, 59, 60
open access, 1, 2, 10-11, 20, 31, 44-45, 63, 72, 217, 247, 252
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 19
Public education, 3, 4, 28, 63, 72, 155, 160, 239, 241, 243
see also Internet
location of reserves, 98, 101
zoning plans, 122
Public opinion, 11, 20, 42-45, 64, 70, 157, 159, 162, 164, 174, 182, 183, 184
see also Political factors
marine vs terrestrial ecosystems, 18, 19-20
monitoring, 126, 127, 131, 134-135
zoning plans, 121, 122
Quotas,
see Fishing quotas;
Individual fishing quotas;
Individual transferable quotas
Ramsar Convention,
see Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat
Rare, threatened, and endangered species, 4, 5, 10, 21-22, 38
see also Extinction
Endangered Species Act, 166, 167, 168, 232
endemism, 19, 104, 110, 136, 177, 215, 255
hydrothermal vents, 6, 110
location of reserves, 100-101, 104, 105
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 18, 19
zoning plans, 118-119, 120
Rearing habitat,
see Spawning and rearing habitat
Recreation uses, 1, 3, 4, 8, 12, 28, 39, 42, 63, 66, 170, 240, 241, 244
see also Aesthetics;
National parks;
Public education
catch-and-release fishing, 119
cost-benefit analysis, 48, 51-52, 54, 59
diving and dive operators, 32, 42, 46-47, 48, 63, 64, 66, 119, 160, 175
fishing, 39, 42, 54, 97, 114, 119, 154, 160, 162, 175, 253-254
location of reserves, 97, 98, 100-101, 107, 181
zoning plans, 119
Recruitment and growth, 28, 33, 76, 84, 88, 90, 91, 93, 94, 107, 178
coral reefs, 129, 253
defined, 217
dispersal effects, 140
larval, 93-94, 132
monitoring, 128, 131, 132, 133
overfishing, 93, 112, 113, 248-254 (passim)
defined, 217
research, 136, 140-143, 248-254 (passim)
size of reserves, 113, 114, 115, 117
sources and sinks, 18, 60, 93-94, 107-108, 133, 217-218
Red snapper, 73, 114, 252
Reef Fishery Plan Development Team, 112
Reefs,
see Artificial reefs;
Coral reefs
Regional factors, 4, 8, 137-138, 180, 245
biogeographic, 5, 68, 69, 98-107(passim), 137, 143, 149, 177, 180, 254, 255
extinction, 84
location of reserves, 98-106 (passim)
monitoring, 131, 184
size of reserves, 117
Regional fishery management councils, 38, 39, 60-61, 64, 72, 162-165, 176, 235
bycatch, 26
defined, 217
Regional Seas Programme, 146, 148
Regulatory issues, 3, 8, 23, 47-49, 180
see also Enforcement and compliance;
Fisheries and fisheries management;
International perspectives;
Legislation;
Regional fishery management councils;
Zoning and zoning plans
Replenishment and replenishment zones, 23, 75-76, 77, 64, 83, 84-86
export monitoring, 133
larval, 91, 133
sources and sinks, 93
spillover of adult fish, 84, 88
Replication of habitats, 28, 99, 114, 115, 116, 127, 183, 255
Research, 3, 4, 7-8, 27-28, 48, 63, 71-95, 126, 135-143, 155, 176, 182-183, 234, 237, 184, 239, 247-256
see also Internet;
Models and modeling;
Monitoring;
Stock assessments;
Uncertainty
baseline and benchmark studies, 27, 78, 153
committee study methodology, 14-16
contingent value method, 51, 52, 63
cost-benefit analysis, 48, 84, 126, 142-143, 251
economic factors, 4, 234;
see also Funding;
“cost-benefit analysis” supra
fisheries, 7-8, 27-28, 139-141, 143, 144, 172, 176, 247-256;
see also Stock assessments
hedonic analysis, 50-51, 52
hydrothermal vents, 110-111
location of reserves, 98, 101, 181-182
non-market values, 50-51, 52
recruitment, 136, 140-143, 248-254(passim)
sanctuaries, general, 141-143, 247-256
seabeds, 141
systematics, 128, 129, 130, 142, 152
tagging studies, 91, 95, 139-140
zoning plans, 118, 119, 122, 126
Rockfish, 113
northern Pacific, 26, 33, 34, 114, 250, 251
U.S. west coast, 24
Rotating closures, 34, 35, 124
Runoff, 3, 11, 134, 166, 172
Saba Marine Park, 80, 130
Sabana-Camaguey Archipelago, 20
Safety, 104
Salmon, 55, 124
Sanctuaries, 71-95
see also Networks and networking;
Site identification;
Zoning plans;
specific sanctuaries
international historical perspectives, 145-151
location of, 6, 97-111, 132
map of U.S. sanctuaries, 158
monitoring, general, 7, 8, 16, 126-135
National Marine Sanctuary Program, 6, 15, 20, 78, 105, 123, 151, 153, 155-160, 162, 184;
see also specific sanctuaries
recommendations, 176-184
research, 141-143, 247-256
size of, 6, 97, 99, 100-101, 111-118, 121, 130, 132, 178-179, 243, 255-256
U.S. historical perspectives, 155-170
wilderness, 11, 169-170, 232, 237, 239-240
Satellites,
see Global positioning system
Scallops, 90
Sea lions, 40, 169
Sea urchins, 90, 93, 95-96, 114, 125, 129, 130, 253, 254
Seabeds, 7
see also Coral reefs
artificial reefs, 74
biodiversity, 74
dredging, 2, 7, 13, 74, 77, 96, 159, 165
larval and juvenile development, 24, 91
research-related disturbances, 141
seamounts, 6, 46, 110, 180
trawling damage, 13, 22, 24, 74, 96, 110, 119-120, 165
Seagrass, 28, 72, 74, 75, 103, 133, 146, 103
Seamounts, 6, 46, 110, 180
Seasonal restrictions, 31, 36, 38, 55, 119, 123, 174
see also Temporal closures
Sedentary and nonmigratory species, 19, 34, 130
see also Coral reefs;
Seabeds
Sedimentation, 5, 172
agricultural runoff, 3, 11,134, 166, 172
Sex ratios,
fish populations, 25, 26, 27, 93-94
Shannon-Weiner diversity, 85-87
Sharks, 19, 111
Shrimp, 99
red snapper bycatch, 73
Sinks,
see Sources and sinks
Site identification, 5-7, 97-111 (passim), 118, 132, 164, 165, 181-182
see also Zoning and zoning plans
aesthetics, 98, 100-101
area closures, 6, 97-111, 132, 181
biodiversity, 99-102, 103, 105, 107, 181
biogeographic factors, 98-106 (passim)
coastal zones, 5, 103, 109-110, 181
community factors, 97-98
coral reefs, 99, 104-105
cultural factors, 98
current and circulation patterns, 103
definitional issues, 106
dispersal factors, 98, 99, 105, 109
economic factors, 97-98
ecosystem approach, 99, 104
educational opportunities, 98, 101
enforcement factors, 118
fisheries management, general, 97-98, 99, 100-101, 104, 105, 110, 111
integrated management and, 5
international waters, 108-109, 110-111
migratory species, 98-99
models and modeling, 99-102, 107-108
mineral resources, 104-105, 110
monitoring, 98, 101
networks and networking, 99, 102, 104, 105-109
overfishing, 111
political factors, 98
pollution, 104, 109-110
rare, threatened, and endangered species, 100-101, 104, 105
recreation uses, 97, 98, 100-101, 107, 181
regional factors, 98-107 (passim)
research opportunities, 98, 101, 181-182
size of, 6, 97, 99, 100-101, 111-118, 121, 132, 178-179, 243, 255-256
social factors, 97-98, 99, 100-101
spawning aggregation sites, 105
terrestrial ecosystems, 100-101, 103, 109-110
wetlands, 103
Size of fish,
see Body size
Social factors, 4, 3, 43, 43-46, 54, 177
see also Aesthetics;
Community-level factors (human);
Cultural factors;
Heritage value;
Historical sites;
Political factors;
Public education;
Public opinion;
Recreational uses
ethics,
environmental, 43-45, 113, 141-142, 247 215,
grouper sex change, 25, 26
location of reserves, 97-98, 99, 100-101
monitoring, 126, 127, 131, 134-135
safety, 104
voluntary support, 67-68
zoning plans, 118, 121
Socioeconomic factors, xi , 6, 42, 59, 65, 68, 69, 118, 121, 125, 126, 181, 244
monitoring, 126, 127, 131, 134-135, 216
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 20-21
Sources and sinks, 18, 60, 93-94, 107-108, 133
defined, 217-218
South Africa, 101-102, 130, 132-133, 254-255
South Atlantic Fishery Management Council, 163
Spatial factors, 71-72, 123, 183, 248, 256
see also Area closures;
Connectivity;
Dispersal;
Geographic factors;
Networks and networking;
Temporal closures;
Zoning and zoning plans
core areas, 119, 180, 215, 255
endemism, 6, 19, 104, 110, 136, 177, 215
extinction, 83
fisheries, 32, 33-35, 55, 56, 58, 59, 127-128, 131, 183;
see also Area closures;
Dispersal
monitoring, 127-128, 130, 131
natural variability, 78-79
size of reserves, 6, 97, 99, 100-101, 111-118, 121, 130, 132, 178-179, 243, 255-256
stock assessments, 32, 33-34, 183
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 17-18
Spawning aggregation sites, 22, 24, 72, 243
grouper, 25-26
location of reserves, 105
red snapper, Gulf of Mexico, 73
size of reserves, 116
zoning plans, 120
Spawning and rearing habitat, 5, 24, 72, 76, 96, 172, 175, 177, 181
see also Larval stage
allee effect, 93, 114, 214, 254
essential, 75
location of reserves, 105
monitoring, 131
size of reserves, 6, 112
Spawning stock biomass, 61, 101, 175, 180, 249, 250, 252, 253
defined 180(n.1), 218
Species diversity,
see Biodiversity;
Genetic diversity
Spillover, 75, 76, 84, 88, 91, 94-95, 107, 117, 139, 177, 254
Stanford University, 139
State government, 170-171, 172-173
agency coordination, 4, 8, 171, 183-184, 234-235
fisheries management, 38, 39, 154, 163, 172
National Estuarine Research Reserves, 74, 160-161, 170
parks, 151, 152-153
St. Lucia, 80, 96, 116, 130
Stock assessments, ix , 31, 34, 32-34, 36, 37, 59, 66, 131, 132, 249
see also Recruitment
age structure, 124, 127, 131, 177, 178
cost-benefit analysis, 41
models, 36, 49, 56-57, 72, 76, 180, 182, 183, 247-248
red snapper,
Gulf of Mexico, 73
single-species, 33, 73
spatial factors, 32, 33-34, 183
temporal closures and, 247-248
temporal factors, other, 30, 32, 33-34, 40, 55
uncertainty, 26-27, 30, 31, 37-38, 40-41, 66, 76-78, 79-80, 112, 113, 247-248, 249
Sumilon Islands, 69
Sustainablity, 2, 13, 17, 28, 177, 233, 237, 245-246
see also Overfishing
defined, 218, 245
fisheries, 14, 28, 30, 32, 33, 46, 49, 59, 74-75, 114, 177-178, 180, 251
maximum sustainable yield, 33, 35, 40, 174, 216
total allowable catch (TAC), 27, 37, 39, 62, 218
Swordfish, 19, 95, 111
Systematics, 128, 129, 130, 142, 152
TAC,
see Total allowable catch (TAC)
Tagging studies, 91, 95, 139-140
Tanzania, 130
Taxonomy,
see Systematics
Temperate zones, general, 2, 94
fisheries, 33-34
Temperature factors, 3, 44, 75, 77, 78, 134
coastal, 43
larval dispersal, 88
Temporal closures, 31, 33-34, 36-37, 38, 40, 123, 174, 248
see also Seasonal restrictions
rotating closures, 34, 35, 124
stock assessments, 247-248
zoning plans, 123
Temporal factors, general
abundance and diversity recovery, 108
cost-benefit analysis, 179
disasters, 256
extinction, 248
fish body size, 81
fisheries management, 36, 172, 183
seasonal restrictions, 31, 36, 38, 55, 119, 123, 174
stock assessments, 30, 32, 33-34, 40, 55
see also Temporal closures
monitoring, 127-128, 130, 131
natural variability, 78-79
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 18
zoning plans, 122
Terrestrial ecosystems, 5, 11, 13-14, 15, 98, 165-166, 170, 172, 239, 244-245
see also Coastal zones;
Wetlands
agricultural activities, 3, 11, 74, 134, 166, 172
human perception, marine ecosystems vs , 18, 19-20
location of reserves, 100-101, 103, 109-110
marine ecosystems compared, 17-20, 169-170
runoff, 3, 11, 134, 166, 172
Wilderness Act, 169-170
Territorial use rights fisheries, 17, 62
exclusive economic zones, 20, 38, 39, 149, 180, 215
Texas Flower Gardens, 72
Threatened species,
see Rare, threatened, and endangered species
Time factors,
see Temporal factors, general;
Temporal closures
Tortugas,
see Dry Tortugas
Total allowable catch (TAC), 27, 37, 39, 62, 218
defined, 218
Trawling,
see Bottom trawling
Trophic models, 82, 144
Tropical zones, general, 2, 94
Tourism,
see Recreational uses
Tuna, 30
Uncertainty, 13, 14, 31, 180, 184
bycatch and discards, 41
extinction, 248
fishery management systems, general, 38-39, 40-41, 112, 172, 249
natural variability, 78-79
size of reserves, 112, 113, 116
stock assessments, 26-27, 30, 31, 37-38, 40-41, 66, 76-78, 79-80, 112, 113, 247-248, 249
total allowable catch (TAC), 37
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 20, 146, 148, 149, 150
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 148
United Nations Environment Programme, 146, 147-148
Vents,
see Hydrothermal vents
Vessel monitoring systems, 183
Virgin Islands, 91, 109, 233, 235, 236
Voluntary support, 67-68
Washington State, 124, 151, 170
Waterfowl, 10, 18, 42, 103, 111, 146, 147, 161-162
Water quality, 5, 127, 171
see also Pollution
algal blooms, 5, 73
Wetlands, 6, 18, 74, 77, 243
exotic species, 74
fish habitat, 2
historical perspectives, 2, 146, 147
location of reserves, 103
mangroves, 22, 28, 105, 146
pollution of, 74
Wilderness, 11, 169-170, 232, 237, 239-240
Wilderness Act, 169-170, 232
Whales, 51-52, 54, 181
World Conservation Strategy, 68, 146, 150
World Conservation Union, 11, 68-69, 98, 111, 146, 148, 149, 150, 237-246
World Heritage Convention,
see Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
World Wide Web,
see Internet
World Wildlife Fund, 146, 150
Zoning and zoning plans, 5, 6-7, 77-78, 99, 107-108, 118-123, 125, 159, 164, 176, 238
see also Buffer zones
area closures, 119-120, 124
buffer zones, 48, 94, 116, 177, 214
coastal zones, 120, 121, 124, 159
community-level factors, 121, 122
cost-benefit analysis, 48, 121, 122
cultural factors, 118
definitions, 12, 218
economic factors, 121, 122
education, 122
enforcement, 121, 122, 123
fisheries management, 7, 119, 120, 122-124
monitoring, 126
overfishing, 124
pollution, 77-78
precautionary approach, 123, 124
public opinion, 121, 122
rare, threatened, and endangered species, 118-119, 120
recreation uses, 119
research, 118, 119, 122, 126
social factors, 118, 121;
see also “community-level factors” supra
spawning aggregation sites, 120
temporal closures, 123
Suggested Citation:
"Index." National Research Council. 2001. Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/9994.
Page 257
Index
~ enlarge ~
A
Abalone,
21-22,
79,
90-91,
93
Aesthetics, 11, 21, 28, 42, 45-47, 59, 98, 181, 216, 241, 242, 244-245
location of reserves, 98, 100-101
Age structure of fish stocks, 124, 127, 131, 153, 177, 178
Agricultural activities, 74
runoff, 3, 11,134, 166, 172
wetland drainage, 74
Alaska, 37, 55, 120, 164, 165, 166, 169, 250
Algae, 28, 82, 95-96, 129
blooms, 5, 73
declines in cover, 19
Alien species,
see Invasive species
Allee effect, 93, 114, 254
defined, 214
American Fisheries Society, 19
American Samoa, 154
Archaeological Resources Protection Act, 169
Area closures, 20, 21, 23, 35, 64, 71-95, 123, 154, 164, 169, 170, 176, 182, 183, 247, 248, 250
see also Sanctuaries;
Temporal closures bycatch and, 23, 24
cost-benefit analysis, 55, 58
grouper spawning aggregation sites, 26
location of, 6, 97-111, 132, 181
monitoring, 55, 58, 132
multispecies fisheries, general, 23, 124
overfishing causing, 11, 61, 116
rotating closures, 34, 35, 124
size of, 6, 97, 99, 100-101, 111-118, 121, 132, 178-179, 243, 255-256
zoning plans, 119-120, 124
Artificial reefs, 74
Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission, 38
Attitudes,
see Public opinion
Australia, 15, 130
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, 20, 105
fisheries, zoning plans, 119-120
Aesthetics, 11, 21, 28, 42, 45-47, 59, 98, 181, 216, 241, 242, 244-245
location of reserves, 98, 100-101
Age structure of fish stocks, 124, 127, 131, 153, 177, 178
Agricultural activities, 74
runoff, 3, 11,134, 166, 172
wetland drainage, 74
Alaska, 37, 55, 120, 164, 165, 166, 169, 250
Algae, 28, 82, 95-96, 129
blooms, 5, 73
declines in cover, 19
Alien species,
see Invasive species
Allee effect, 93, 114, 254
defined, 214
American Fisheries Society, 19
American Samoa, 154
Archaeological Resources Protection Act, 169
Area closures, 20, 21, 23, 35, 64, 71-95, 123, 154, 164, 169, 170, 176, 182, 183, 247, 248, 250
see also Sanctuaries;
Temporal closures bycatch and, 23, 24
cost-benefit analysis, 55, 58
grouper spawning aggregation sites, 26
location of, 6, 97-111, 132, 181
monitoring, 55, 58, 132
multispecies fisheries, general, 23, 124
overfishing causing, 11, 61, 116
rotating closures, 34, 35, 124
size of, 6, 97, 99, 100-101, 111-118, 121, 132, 178-179, 243, 255-256
zoning plans, 119-120, 124
Artificial reefs, 74
Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission, 38
Attitudes,
see Public opinion
Australia, 15, 130
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, 20, 105
fisheries, zoning plans, 119-120
B
Barents Sea, 249
Baseline and benchmark studies, 27, 78, 153
Belize, 130
Benthic habitat,
see Seabeds
Bering Sea, 164
Suggested Citation:
"Index." National Research Council. 2001. Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/9994.
Page 258
Biodiversity, general, ix , xi , 1, 3, 4-5, 7, 10, 11, 13, 17, 21, 22, 32, 49, 72, 81-84, 138-139, 149, 164, 171-172, 179-180, 181, 237, 238, 243, 245
see also Extinction;
Genetic diversity;
Rare, threatened, and endangered speciesbenthic habitat, 24
bycatch and, 32
defined, 214
location of reserves, 99-102, 103, 105, 107, 181
monitoring, 130
recommendations, 177-178
Shannon-Weiner diversity, 85-87
Bioeconomic models, 144, 249, 251, 252
Biogeographic factors, 5, 68, 69, 137, 143, 149, 177, 180, 254-255
location of reserves, 98-106 (passim)
Biomass
spawning stock biomass, 61, 101, 175, 180, 218, 249, 250, 252, 253
stock, general, 27, 32, 49, 55, 72, 75, 79, 80, 81, 85-87, 90, 93, 112, 116, 128, 131, 144, 178, 250-253 (passim)
Biomass overflow,
see Spillover
Birds,
see Waterfowl
Body size, fish, 27, 32, 35, 36, 38, 41, 75, 76, 79, 80, 81, 85-87, 88, 90, 93-94, 124, 131, 144, 172, 174-175, 177
Bottom trawling, 13, 22, 24, 74, 96, 110, 119-120, 165
Buffer zones, 94, 116, 177
cost-benefit analysis, 48
defined, 214
Bycatch, 3, 5, 22, 23, 26, 31-32, 34, 111, 175, 178
see also Discards area closures, 23, 24
defined, 31-32
red snapper, Gulf of Mexico, 73
uncertainty, 41
C
California, 107, 124, 151, 165, 166, 170, 171
Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary, 106, 159, 170
Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, 159
National Estuarine Research Reserves, 170
wetland losses, 74
Canada, 15, 55, 69, 96
cod, 23, 30, 132, 174, 248
Gulf of Maine, 109
hydrothermal vents, 111
location of reserves, 103
Cape Point Nature Reserve, 100-101
Caribbean Sea, 80, 91, 109, 127, 132, 146, 251
Cuba, 20, 109
Dry Tortugas, 68, 99, 130, 151, 155, 159-160
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS), 12, 20, 64-65, 82, 84, 97, 99, 102, 116, 129, 130, 132, 159, 160
Jamaica, 84, 95-96, 132
St. Lucia, 80, 96, 116, 130
Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary, 106, 159, 170
Chile, 130
Circulation patterns,
see Current and circulation patterns
Clean Water Act, 168, 169, 172, 233
Closures,
see Area closures;
Temporal closures
Coastal Barrens Resources Act, 169
Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA), 74, 151-152, 161, 169, 172, 232
Coastal zones, ix , 2, 3, 4, 13, 21, 28, 40, 42, 77, 123, 166, 171, 184, 253-255
see also Recreational uses;
Regional fishery management councils;
Wetlands
community-level factors, 3, 14, 28, 42, 43, 59, 66-70, 181
estuaries, 13, 21, 38, 74, 77, 103, 105, 160-161, 166, 170, 171, 243
exclusive economic zones, 20, 38, 39, 149, 180, 215
historical perspectives, 43, 146, 149
integrated management, 123, 159
location of reserves, 5, 103, 109-110, 181
migratory species, 38
military reservations, 166
public trust property, 20
Suggested Citation:
"Index." National Research Council. 2001. Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/9994.
Page 259
size of reserves, 115, 118
temperature factors, 43
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 18, 19
zoning plans, 120, 121, 124, 159
Cod, 30, 35, 38, 55, 76, 95, 113, 114, 132, 140, 174, 248, 249, 250, 252, 254
Georges Bank, 23, 30, 132
Newfoundland, 30
Community-level factors (human), 14, 28, 42, 43, 59, 71, 147, 173, 181-182, 242-245 (passim)
coastal zones, 3, 14, 28, 42, 43, 59, 66-70, 181
definition of community, 66
economic factors, 121, 122;
see also Socioeconomic factors
enforcement and compliance, 12, 66, 67, 70, 102, 181, 183
international community-based approach, 66, 68-69
location of reserves, 97-98
monitoring, 67
partnerships, 66-70
zoning plans, 121, 122
COMPARE (Criteria and Objectives for Marine Protected Area Evaluation), 99-102
Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation and Liability Act, 169
Connectivity, 5, 7, 8, 99, 105, 112, 115-116, 135-138, 144, 155, 177, 255, 234, 255-256
defined, 215
Contingent value method, 51, 52, 63
Convention for the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage, 147
Convention on Biological Diversity, 20, 150
Convention on Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas, 146, 147
Convention on Fishing, 147
Convention on the Continental Shelf, 146, 147
Convention on the High Seas, 146, 147
Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone, 146
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, 146, 147
Coral reefs, 1, 6, 23, 32, 33, 46-47, 72, 74, 77, 95-96, 107, 109, 151, 154, 180, 243, 253
genetic research, 137
larval dispersal, 91
location of reserves, 99, 104-105
monitoring, 127, 130, 132
overfishing, 23, 25
recruitment, 129, 253
size of reserves, 111-112, 114, 116
Coral Reef Task Force, 111
Core areas, 119, 180, 255
defined, 215
Cost and cost-benefit factors, 1, 3, 9, 15, 23, 27-28, 42, 46-66, 72, 142-143, 179, 252, 254-255
see also Nonmarket values
area closures, 55, 58
buffer zones, 48
contingent value method, 51, 52, 63
enforcement, 48, 55, 72, 98, 102, 107, 179
monitoring, 48, 59, 126, 132
overfishing, 61
property rights, 48-49, 59, 60
recreation uses, 48, 51-52, 54, 59
research, 48, 84, 126, 142-143, 251
size of reserves, 113, 114
stock assessments, 41
zoning plans, 48, 121, 122
Criteria and Objectives for Marine Protected Area Evaluation,
see COMPARE
Cuba, 20, 109
Cultural factors, 4, 17, 21, 28-29, 45-46, 48, 59, 67, 156, 181, 233, 237-245(passim)
see also Aesthetics;
Heritage value definitions, 215
ethics, environmental, 43-45, 113, 141-142, 215, 247
freedom of the seas, 2, 10-11, 20
location of reserves, 98
historical sites, 4, 28-29, 45-46, 100-101, 103, 215-216, 237
zoning plans, 118
Current and circulation patterns, 5
location of reserves, 103
terrestrial and marine ecosystems compared, 18
Suggested Citation:
"Index." National Research Council. 2001. Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/9994.
Page 260
D
Definitional issues, 214-218, 233
community, 66
ecological reserve, 12, 215
essential fish habitat, 75
fishery reserve, 12
glossary of terms, 214-218
habitat/species management area, 243
location of reserves, 106
managed resource protected area, 245
marine protected area, 1, 11-12, 216, 233, 237
marine reserve . 1, 12, 141, 148, 216, 238
monitoring, 126-127, 216
national park, 240-241
natural monument, 242
networks, 106, 217
protected landscape/seascape, 244
wilderness, 170, 239
Department of Commerce, xi-xii , 234-235
see also National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration;
National Marine Fisheries Service
Department of the Interior, xi-xii , 8, 234-235
see also Fish and Wildlife Service;
National Park Service
Discards, 23, 34, 39
see also Bycatch
uncertainty in estimates of, 41
Dispersal, 5-6, 8, 17, 18-19, 22, 27-28, 75, 84, 94-95, 114, 136-138, 177, 182, 254
density effects on recruitment and growth, 140
larval, 75, 88-92, 133
location of reserves, 98, 99, 105, 109
multispecies and trophic models, 144
sea urchins, 254
size of reserves, 114, 117
spillover, 75, 76, 84, 88, 91, 94-95, 107, 117, 139, 177, 254
tagging studies, 91, 95, 139-140
Diving and dive operators, 32, 42, 46-47, 48, 63, 64, 66, 119, 160, 175
Dredging, 2, 7, 13, 74, 77, 96, 159, 165
Dry Tortugas, 64-65, 68, 99, 130, 151, 155, 159-160
E
Economic factors, 3, 8, 20, 21, 31, 38-39, 40, 58, 59, 60-66, 74, 244, 245, 249, 252
see also Cost and cost-benefit factors;
Fisheries and fisheries management;
Funding;
Non-market values;
Property rights;
Sustainability
community-level, 28, 181;
see also Socioeconomic factors
location of reserves, 97-98
monitoring, 126, 127, 131, 134-135
public opinion, environmental values vs , 44
research, 4, 234;
see also Funding
zoning plans, 121, 122
Ecosystem-based approach/management, general, 1, 5, 7, 10, 15, 17, 31, 32, 40, 126, 142, 154-155, 172-173, 175-176, 237, 239
see also Biodiversity;
Genetic diversity defined, 215
location of reserves, 99, 104
monitoring, 129
unexploited species, 138
zoning plans, 120
Education,
see Internet;
Professional education;
Public education
EEZ,
see Exclusive economic zones
Endangered species,
see Rare, threatened, and endangered species
Endangered Species Act, 166-167, 168, 232
Endeavor Hot Vents Area, 111
Endemism, 19, 104, 110, 136, 177, 255
defined,, 215
hydrothermal vents, 6, 110
Enforcement and compliance, 7, 12, 39, 55, 72, 79, 98, 152, 155, 162, 165, 184, 234, 236
community factors, 12, 66, 67, 70, 102, 181, 183
cost factors, 48, 55, 72, 98, 102, 107, 179
funding, 8, 184
geographic factors, general, 72
historical perspectives, 151
location of reserves, 118
zoning, 121, 122, 123
Environmental Perspective to the Year 2000 and Beyond, 150
Suggested Citation:
"Index." National Research Council. 2001. Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/9994.
Page 261
Environmental Protection Agency, 184, 235
National Environmental Policy Act, 168, 169, 233
Environmental services, xi , 21, 28, 32, 42, 47-51 (passim), 107, 152, 154, 172, 173, 176, 178, 237, 238, 244-245
Essential fish habitats, 8, 22, 75
Estuaries, 13, 21, 38, 77, 103, 105, 160-161, 166, 171, 243
National Estuarine Research Reserves, 74, 160-161, 170
Ethics, environmental, 43-45, 113, 141-142, 247
defined, 215
Europe, 11
Exclusive economic zones, 20, 38, 39, 149, 180
defined, 215
Executive orders, xi-xii , 8, 96, 107, 166, 171, 232-236
Existence value,
see Heritage value
Exotic species, 11, 77
wetlands, 74
Extinction, 21-22, 77, 83, 110
see also Rare, threatened, and endangered species
allee effect, 93, 114, 214, 254
American Fisheries Society, 19
geographic factors, 77, 83
habitat destruction and, 18
metapopulations, 18, 113, 116, 249
defined, 216
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 18
time factors, 248
F
Federal government, xi-xii , 4, 153
see also Funding;
Legislation;
specific departments and agencies
cultural landscapes, 46
executive orders, xi-xii , 8, 96, 107, 166, 171, 232-236
interagency coordination, 3, 4, 8, 171, 175, 183-184, 234-235
military reservations, 166
Federal Land Policy and Management Act, 165
Federal Water Pollution Control Act, 168, 169
Fiji, 130
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, 169
Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), 3, 15, 153, 161-162, 184
Fisheries and fisheries management, ix , xi , 1, 3, 4-5, 13, 14, 22-27, 30-41, 48, 54-69, 154, 162-165, 171, 172, 174-175, 178-179, 246-257
see also Area closures;
Bycatch;
Fishing quotas;
National Marine Fisheries Service;
Regional fishery management councils;
Overfishing;
Replenishment;
Spawning and rearing habitat;
Temporal closures;
Total allowable catch (TAC);
specific species
age structure of stocks, 124, 127, 131, 153, 177, 178
bottom trawling, 13, 22, 24, 74, 96, 110, 119-120, 165
committee study methodology, 15
conventional management, xi , 1, 2-3, 8-9, 13, 14, 15, 23, 27-28, 30-41, 58, 63-66, 77, 105, 112, 143, 174-175, 179, 180
see also Fishing quotas;
Stock assessments
discards, 23, 34, 39, 41;
see also Bycatch
essential fish habitats, 8, 22, 75
exclusive economic zones, 20, 38, 39, 149, 180, 215
fixed exploitation rate strategies, 56-57
gear restrictions, 36, 38, 39, 47, 119-120, 164, 165, 248
location of reserves, 97-98, 99, 100-101, 104, 105, 110, 111
Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, 14, 35, 39, 55, 59, 61, 66, 74-75, 162, 164-165, 175-176, 232
maximum sustainable yield, 33, 35, 40, 174, 216
monitoring, 127-128, 131-132, 134-135, 172
see also Enforcement and compliance;
Stock assessments
open access, 1, 2, 10-11, 20, 31, 44-45, 63, 72, 217, 247, 252
Suggested Citation:
"Index." National Research Council. 2001. Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/9994.
Page 262
pollution, 2, 75
recreational, 39, 42, 54, 97, 114, 119, 154, 160, 162, 175, 253-254
regional fishery management councils, 26, 38, 39, 60-61, 64, 72, 162-165, 176, 217, 235
research, 7-8, 27-28, 139-141, 143, 144, 172, 176, 247-256;
see also “monitoring” supra
reserve defined, 12
sex ratios, 25, 26, 27, 93-94
size of reserves, 112-117 (passim), 121, 132, 178-179, 243, 255-256
spatial factors, 32, 33-35, 55, 56, 58, 59, 127-128, 131, 183;
see also Area closures
sustainability, 14, 28, 30, 32, 33, 46, 49, 59, 74-75, 114, 177-178, 180, 251
maximum sustainable yield, 33, 35, 40, 174, 216
total allowable catch (TAC), 27, 37, 39, 62, 218
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 19
total allowable catch (TAC), 27, 37, 39, 62, 218
uncertainty, 38-39, 40-41, 112, 172, 249
stock assessments, 26-27, 30, 31, 38, 40, 112, 113, 247-248, 249
total allowable catch (TAC), 37
zoning plans, 7, 119, 120, 122-124
Fishing quotas, 23, 26, 27, 36, 37-38, 41, 55, 56
individual fishing quotas, ix , 14, 39, 216
individual transferable quotas, 49, 62, 216
total allowable catch (TAC), 27, 37, 39, 62, 218
Fixed exploitation rate strategies, 56-57
Florida, 109, 151
Dry Tortugas, 64-65, 68, 99, 130, 151, 155, 159-160
Oculina Bank, 72, 82
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS), 12, 20, 64-65, 82, 84, 97, 99, 102, 116, 129, 130, 132, 159, 160
Flounder, 23, 90
Food Security Act, 74
Foreign countries,
see International perspectives;
specific countries
Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act, 165
Forest Service, 165-166
Funding, 233, 234
committee study at hand, 15
enforcement, 8, 184
monitoring, 8, 130
National Marine Sanctuary program, 160
national parks, 155, 157
G
Galapagos Marine Reserve, 255
Gear restrictions, 36, 38, 39, 47, 119-120, 164, 165, 248
Genetic diversity, 5, 10, 18, 22, 136-137, 142, 156, 175, 238, 239, 255
see also Biodiversity
endemism, 6, 19, 104, 110, 136, 177, 215, 255
dispersal and, 92
sex ratios, 27
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 18, 19
Geneva Conventions on the Law of the Sea, 146, 147
Georges Bank, 12, 23, 30, 132, 165
Geographical factors, 10, 77
see also Area closures;
Networks and networking;
Regional factors;
Regional fishery management councils;
Site identification;
Spatial factors;
Zoning and zoning plans
core areas, 119, 180, 215, 255
extinction, 77, 83
fishery management, general, 38, 55
implementation and enforcement, 72
size of reserves and protected areas, 6, 97, 99, 100-101, 111-118, 121, 130, 132, 178-179, 243, 255-256
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 17-18
Geographic information systems, 46
Glacier Bay, 12, 151, 154, 155, 156-157
Global positioning system, 183
Government role, 3, 239-246 (passim)
see also Federal government;
Funding;
Local government;
Political factors;
Regulatory issues;
State government
interagency coordination, 3, 4, 8, 171, 175, 183-184, 234-235
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, 20, 105
Suggested Citation:
"Index." National Research Council. 2001. Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/9994.
Page 263
Grotius, Hugo, 2
Groundfish, 55
see also specific species
area closures, 26
fishery reserves, 12
quotas, 26
mixed-species stocks, 30
overfishing, 30, 174
Grouper, 25-26, 94
Guidelines for Establishing Marine Protected Areas , 69, 149, 150
Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories , 149, 237-246
Gulf of Alaska, 164, 250
Gulf of Maine, 109
Gulf of Mexico, 163, 165, 172
grouper, area closures, 26
red snapper, 73, 252
H
Habitat areas of particular concern (HAPC), 40, 78, 180
see also Rare, threatened, and endangered species
Habitat maps, 5, 105
Halibut, 26, 31, 55
Hardin, Garitt, 20, 44
Hawaii, 170-171
Hedonic analysis, 50-51, 52
Herbivores, 19, 82, 95-96, 129, 130
Heritage value (existence value), 4, 17, 28-29, 32, 42-43, 47, 52, 61, 63, 98, 103, 154-155, 176, 183-184, 242
defined, 215-216
historical sites, 4, 28-29, 45-46, 100-101, 103, 215-216, 237
Historical perspectives, 11, 16, 17, 39, 55, 145-173
coastal zones, 43, 146, 149
endangered species, 5, 18
enforcement, 151
freedom of the seas, 2, 10-11, 20
public property rights, 20, 44-45
sanctuaries, 145-151, 155-170
terrestrial vs marine area conservation, 17
wetlands, 2, 146, 147
Historical sites, 4, 28-29, 45-46, 100-101, 103, 215-216, 237
Hydrothermal vents, 6, 110-111, 180
I
IUCN,
see World Conservation Union
Individual fishing quotas, ix , 14, 39
defined, 216
Individual transferable quotas, 49, 62
defined, 216
Institutional factors, 3, 8, 41, 123, 239-246 (passim)
see also Enforcement and compliance;
Government role;
Integrated management;
Regional fishery management councils;
Regulatory issues
cost-benefit analysis, 48
interagency coordination, 3, 4, 8, 171, 175, 183-184, 234-235
national parks, 241;
see also National Park Service
zoning plans, 121-122
Integrated management, 2, 4, 12, 13, 66, 68, 69, 148, 175, 181, 234
coastal zones, 123, 159
cultural landscapes, 45
defined, 216
location of reserves, 5
models, 63
national, 40
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 20
International Maritime Organization, 20
International perspectives, 16, 20, 70, 145-151, 184, 236
see also specific countries ;
terms beginning “United Nations” and “World”
community-based approach, 66, 68-69
conventions, 20, 146-150 (passim)
coordination, 4, 66, 68-69
essential fish habitat, 75
Europe, 11
fisheries, 3, 20, 39, 145-146
exclusive economic zones, 20, 38, 39, 149, 180, 215
historical perspectives, 145-151;
see also “conventions” supra
hydrothermal vents, 110-111
jurisdictional issues, 3, 108-109, 111, 148;
see also “exclusive economic zones” supra
location of reserves, 108-109, 110-111
Suggested Citation:
"Index." National Research Council. 2001. Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/9994.
Page 264
monitoring, 130
replenishment, 76
International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN),
see World Conservation Union
Internet
Alaskan areas, 166
Gulf of Maine, 109
hydrothermal vents, 110-111
international conventions, 146
migratory waterfowl, 161-162
National Estuarine Research Reserves, 161
National Marine Sanctuary program, 160
rockfish, 24
InterRidge program, 110-111
Invasive species,
see Exotic species
J
Jamaica, 84, 95-96, 132
K
Kelp, 22, 75, 105, 129, 133, 181
Kenya, 127, 129, 130
Key Largo, 97
L
Larval stage, 24, 28, 76, 137, 143-144
dispersal, 75, 88-92, 133
recruitment, 93-94, 132
replenishment, 91, 133
seabeds, 24, 91
sedentary and nonmigratory species, 19
temperature factors, 88
Law of the Sea,
see Geneva Conventions on the Law of the Sea;
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
Legislation, 107, 151-152, 162, 184
Archaeological Resources Protection Act, 169
Clean Water Acts, 168, 169, 172, 233
Coastal Barrens Resources Act, 169
Coastal Zone Management Act, 74, 151-152, 161, 169, 172, 232
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act, 169
Endangered Species Act, 166-167, 168, 232
Federal Land Policy and Management Act, 165
Federal Water Pollution Control Act, 168, 169
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, 169
Food Security Act, 74
Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act, 165
Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, 14, 35, 39, 55, 59, 61, 66, 74-75, 162, 164-165, 175-176, 232
Marine Mammal Protection Act, 166-167, 168-169, 232
Marine Plastics Pollution Research and Control Act, 169
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act, 155-160, 169
Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act, 165
National Environmental Policy Act, 168, 169, 233
National Historic Preservation Act, 46, 232
National Marine Sanctuaries Act, 78, 232
National Park Service Organic Act, 232
National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act, 232
National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act, 162
Ocean Dumping Act, 168, 169
Oil Pollution Act, 168, 169
Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, 169, 233
public property rights, 20
various, 165-171, 232-233
Wilderness Act, 169-170, 232
Litigation, 154
Lobsters, 130
Local factors,
see Commnity-level factors
Local government, 172-173, 184
federal coordination with, 4, 8, 171, 184
National Estuarine Research Reserves, 161
Location of reserves,
see Site identification
Suggested Citation:
"Index." National Research Council. 2001. Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/9994.
Page 265
M
Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSFCMA), 14, 35, 39, 55, 59, 61, 66, 74-75, 162, 164-165, 175-176, 232
Mangroves, 22, 28, 105, 146
Marine and Coastal Protected Areas: A Guide for Planners and Managers , 150
Marine Mammal Protection Act, 166-167, 168-169, 232
Marine mammals
Marine Mammal Protection Act, 166, 167, 168
sea lions, 40, 169
whales, 51-52, 54, 181
see also Whales
Marine Plastics Pollution Research and Control Act, 169
Marine Protected Area Center, 8, 235
Marine Protected Area Federal Advisory Committee, 235
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act, 155-160, 169
MARPOL,
see International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
Mathematical models and modeling, 36, 56-57, 142, 143-144
Maximum sustainable yield, 33, 35, 40, 174
defined, 216
Mediterranean Sea, 130, 146
Metapopulations, 18, 113, 116, 249
defined, 216
MSFCMA,
see Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act
Mid-Atlantic Regional Fishery Management Council, 38, 163
Migratory species, 34, 95, 95, 143
see also specific species
coastal, 38
fishery management councils, 38
jurisdictional issues, 39
location of reserves, 98-99
size of reserves, 116
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 18
waterfowl, 10, 18, 42, 103, 111, 146, 147, 161-162
Military reservations, 166
Models and modeling, 8, 36, 41, 56-57, 71, 79-95, 140-144 (passim), 247-256 (passim)
bioeconomic, 144, 249, 251, 252
integrated management, 63
location of reserves, 99-102, 107-108
mathematical, 36, 56-57, 142, 143-144
metapopulation, 18, 113, 116, 216, 249
multispecies, 34, 144
single-species, 33, 174-175, 251
size of reserves, 112, 113-114, 116, 117, 178-179
stock assessment, 36, 49, 56-57, 72, 76, 180, 182, 183, 247-248
trophic, 82, 144
Mineral, including oil and natural gas, resources, 2, 7 . 48, 156, 157, 159, 171
location of reserves, 104-105, 110
Oil Pollution Act, 168
Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, 169, 233
Monitoring, 7, 8, 16, 126-135, 138, 182-183, 184, 234, 239
see also Enforcement and compliance;
Research;
Stock assessments area closures, 55, 58, 132
baseline and benchmark studies, 27, 78, 153
biodiversity, 130
community-level, 67
coral reefs, 127, 130, 132
costs, 48, 59, 126, 132
defined, 126-127, 216
economic factors, monitoring of, 126, 127, 131, 134-135
export function, 132-133
fisheries, general, 127-128, 131-132, 134-135, 172
funding, 8, 130
international, 130
location of reserves, 98, 101
National Estuarine Research Reserves, 161
overfishing, 129, 132
pollution, 127, 134
predator/prey relations, 129, 131
public opinion, 126, 127, 131, 134-135
recovery rates, 132, 133-134
recruitment, 128, 131, 132, 133
regional factors, 131, 184
Suggested Citation:
"Index." National Research Council. 2001. Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/9994.
Page 266
sanctuaries, general, 7, 8, 16, 126-135
size of reserves, 116
social factors, 126, 127, 131, 134-135;
see also “community-level” and “public opinion” supra
socioeconomic factors, 126, 127, 131, 134-135, 216
spatial factors, other, 127-128, 130, 131
systematics, 128, 129, 130, 142, 152
tagging studies, 91, 95, 139-140
temporal factors, 127-128, 130, 131
vessel monitoring systems, 183
Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, 159
MSY,
see Maximum sustainable yield
Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act, 165
Multispecies fisheries, general, 36-37, 40
see also Bycatch
area closures, 23, 124
groundfish, 30
models, 34, 144
zoning plans, 124
N
National Environmental Policy Act, 168, 169, 233
National Estuary Program, 184
National Estuarine Research Reserves, 74, 160-161, 184, 212
National Forest Service, 153
National Historic Preservation Act, 46, 232
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), 15, 151, 162, 164-165, 169, 175-176, 184
defined, 216
grouper, area closures, 26
red snapper bycatch, Gulf of Mexico, 73
National Marine Sanctuaries Act, 78, 232
National Marine Sanctuary Program, 6, 15, 20, 78, 105, 123, 151, 153, 155-160, 162, 184
see also specific sanctuaries
National Ocean Service, 155, 161
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 3, 8, 15, 64-65, 107, 151, 155, 160, 161, 235
see also National Marine Fisheries Service
National parks, 5, 151, 154-157, 240-241
see also National Marine Sanctuary Program
National Park Service, 3, 15, 151, 153, 154, 156-157, 184
National Park Service Organic Act, 232
National Registry of Historic Places, 46
National Wildlife Refuges, 161-162
National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act, 232
National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act, 162
Nature Conservancy, 170
Natural mortality, 8, 72, 73, 141, 176
predator/prey relationships, 3, 31, 43, 82, 88-89, 95, 129, 131, 175
Networks and networking, 6-7, 152, 170, 176
connectivity, 5, 7, 8, 99, 105, 112, 115-116, 135-138, 144, 155, 177, 215, 255, 234, 255-256
defined, 106, 217
location of reserves, 99, 102, 104, 105-109
migratory waterfowl, 161-162
size of reserves, 112, 115-116
New England Fishery Management Council, 163, 165, 234
New Zealand, 15, 80, 129, 130, 247
Non-market values, 42, 47, 47, 48, 49-54, 59
see also Aesthetics;
Cultural factors;
Environmental services;
Heritage values;
Historical sites;
Recreational uses
contingent value method, 51, 52, 63
hedonic analysis, 50-51, 52
unexploited species, studies of, 138-139
Nonnative species,
see Exotic species
Nontarget species,
see Bycatch
North Pacific Fishery Management Council, 26, 163, 165
Nova Scotia, 96
Nursery habitat,
see Spawning and rearing habitat
Nutrients, 5
agricultural runoff, 3, 11,134, 166, 172
monitoring, 134
recycling, 21
O
Ocean Dumping Act, 168, 169
Oculina Banks, 72, 82
Oil Pollution Act, 168, 169
Oil resources,
see Mineral, including and oil and natural gas, resources
Suggested Citation:
"Index." National Research Council. 2001. Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/9994.
Page 267
Olympic National Marine Sanctuary, 159
Open access, 1, 2, 10-11, 20, 31, 44-45, 63, 72, 247, 252
defined, 217
Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, 169, 233
Overfishing, 10, 2, 11, 13, 21, 14, 30-31, 47, 59, 66, 73, 174, 177, 178-179, 251, 252, 253
area closures and, 11, 61, 116
coral reefs, 23, 25
cost-benefit analysis, 61
cultural factors, 2, 10-11, 20
fishery reserves, 12, 23-24
groundfish, 30, 174
grouper, 25
locale of stocks, 5
location of reserves, 111
monitoring, 129, 132
number of stocks, worldwide, 11
Pacific giant clams, 21
size of reserves, 116
zoning plans, 124
P
Pacific Fishery Management Council, 163, 165
Philippines, 79, 80, 116, 130
Plaice,
see Flounder
Political factors, 3, 38, 42, 47-48, 60-63, 64, 108-109
see also Public opinion
location of reserves, 98
Pollock, 40, 124, 167, 169
Pollution, 2, 3, 6, 77, 123, 78, 159, 166, 170, 235
see also Mineral, including oil and natural gas, resources
agricultural runoff, 3, 11,134, 166, 172
algal blooms, 5, 73
Clean Water Act, 168, 169, 172, 233
fish habitat, 2, 75
location of reserves, 104, 109-110
Marine Plastics Pollution Research and Control Act, 169
monitoring, 127, 134
Ocean Dumping Act, 168, 169
Oil Pollution Act, 168, 169
wetlands, 74
zoning plans, 77-78
Population dynamics, 2-3, 73, 79, 132, 140-141, 143-144
Precautionary approach, 14, 39, 52, 74-75, 113, 165, 180, 176, 249
defined, 217
zoning plans, 123, 124
Predator/prey relationships, 3, 31, 43, 82, 88-89, 95, 175
monitoring, 129, 131
Professional education, 3, 72, 239, 241
see also Internet
Property rights, 61-63, 44, 38, 60, 61-63, 70, 239, 241, 243, 245, 246
cost-benefit analysis, 48-49, 59, 60
open access, 1, 2, 10-11, 20, 31, 44-45, 63, 72, 217, 247, 252
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 19
Public education, 3, 4, 28, 63, 72, 155, 160, 239, 241, 243
see also Internet
location of reserves, 98, 101
zoning plans, 122
Public opinion, 11, 20, 42-45, 64, 70, 157, 159, 162, 164, 174, 182, 183, 184
see also Political factors
marine vs terrestrial ecosystems, 18, 19-20
monitoring, 126, 127, 131, 134-135
zoning plans, 121, 122
Q
Quotas,
see Fishing quotas;
Individual fishing quotas;
Individual transferable quotas
R
Ramsar Convention,
see Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat
Rare, threatened, and endangered species, 4, 5, 10, 21-22, 38
see also Extinction
Endangered Species Act, 166, 167, 168, 232
endemism, 19, 104, 110, 136, 177, 215, 255
Suggested Citation:
"Index." National Research Council. 2001. Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/9994.
Page 268
hydrothermal vents, 6, 110
location of reserves, 100-101, 104, 105
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 18, 19
zoning plans, 118-119, 120
Rearing habitat,
see Spawning and rearing habitat
Recreation uses, 1, 3, 4, 8, 12, 28, 39, 42, 63, 66, 170, 240, 241, 244
see also Aesthetics;
National parks;
Public education
catch-and-release fishing, 119
cost-benefit analysis, 48, 51-52, 54, 59
diving and dive operators, 32, 42, 46-47, 48, 63, 64, 66, 119, 160, 175
fishing, 39, 42, 54, 97, 114, 119, 154, 160, 162, 175, 253-254
location of reserves, 97, 98, 100-101, 107, 181
zoning plans, 119
Recruitment and growth, 28, 33, 76, 84, 88, 90, 91, 93, 94, 107, 178
coral reefs, 129, 253
defined, 217
dispersal effects, 140
larval, 93-94, 132
monitoring, 128, 131, 132, 133
overfishing, 93, 112, 113, 248-254 (passim)
defined, 217
research, 136, 140-143, 248-254 (passim)
size of reserves, 113, 114, 115, 117
sources and sinks, 18, 60, 93-94, 107-108, 133, 217-218
Red snapper, 73, 114, 252
Reef Fishery Plan Development Team, 112
Reefs,
see Artificial reefs;
Coral reefs
Regional factors, 4, 8, 137-138, 180, 245
biogeographic, 5, 68, 69, 98-107(passim), 137, 143, 149, 177, 180, 254, 255
extinction, 84
location of reserves, 98-106 (passim)
monitoring, 131, 184
size of reserves, 117
Regional fishery management councils, 38, 39, 60-61, 64, 72, 162-165, 176, 235
bycatch, 26
defined, 217
Regional Seas Programme, 146, 148
Regulatory issues, 3, 8, 23, 47-49, 180
see also Enforcement and compliance;
Fisheries and fisheries management;
International perspectives;
Legislation;
Regional fishery management councils;
Zoning and zoning plans
Replenishment and replenishment zones, 23, 75-76, 77, 64, 83, 84-86
export monitoring, 133
larval, 91, 133
sources and sinks, 93
spillover of adult fish, 84, 88
Replication of habitats, 28, 99, 114, 115, 116, 127, 183, 255
Research, 3, 4, 7-8, 27-28, 48, 63, 71-95, 126, 135-143, 155, 176, 182-183, 234, 237, 184, 239, 247-256
see also Internet;
Models and modeling;
Monitoring;
Stock assessments;
Uncertainty
baseline and benchmark studies, 27, 78, 153
committee study methodology, 14-16
contingent value method, 51, 52, 63
cost-benefit analysis, 48, 84, 126, 142-143, 251
economic factors, 4, 234;
see also Funding;
“cost-benefit analysis” supra
fisheries, 7-8, 27-28, 139-141, 143, 144, 172, 176, 247-256;
see also Stock assessments
hedonic analysis, 50-51, 52
hydrothermal vents, 110-111
location of reserves, 98, 101, 181-182
non-market values, 50-51, 52
recruitment, 136, 140-143, 248-254(passim)
sanctuaries, general, 141-143, 247-256
seabeds, 141
systematics, 128, 129, 130, 142, 152
tagging studies, 91, 95, 139-140
zoning plans, 118, 119, 122, 126
Rockfish, 113
northern Pacific, 26, 33, 34, 114, 250, 251
U.S. west coast, 24
Rotating closures, 34, 35, 124
Runoff, 3, 11, 134, 166, 172
Suggested Citation:
"Index." National Research Council. 2001. Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/9994.
Page 269
S
Saba Marine Park, 80, 130
Sabana-Camaguey Archipelago, 20
Safety, 104
Salmon, 55, 124
Sanctuaries, 71-95
see also Networks and networking;
Site identification;
Zoning plans;
specific sanctuaries
international historical perspectives, 145-151
location of, 6, 97-111, 132
map of U.S. sanctuaries, 158
monitoring, general, 7, 8, 16, 126-135
National Marine Sanctuary Program, 6, 15, 20, 78, 105, 123, 151, 153, 155-160, 162, 184;
see also specific sanctuaries
recommendations, 176-184
research, 141-143, 247-256
size of, 6, 97, 99, 100-101, 111-118, 121, 130, 132, 178-179, 243, 255-256
U.S. historical perspectives, 155-170
wilderness, 11, 169-170, 232, 237, 239-240
Satellites,
see Global positioning system
Scallops, 90
Sea lions, 40, 169
Sea urchins, 90, 93, 95-96, 114, 125, 129, 130, 253, 254
Seabeds, 7
see also Coral reefs
artificial reefs, 74
biodiversity, 74
dredging, 2, 7, 13, 74, 77, 96, 159, 165
larval and juvenile development, 24, 91
research-related disturbances, 141
seamounts, 6, 46, 110, 180
trawling damage, 13, 22, 24, 74, 96, 110, 119-120, 165
Seagrass, 28, 72, 74, 75, 103, 133, 146, 103
Seamounts, 6, 46, 110, 180
Seasonal restrictions, 31, 36, 38, 55, 119, 123, 174
see also Temporal closures
Sedentary and nonmigratory species, 19, 34, 130
see also Coral reefs;
Seabeds
Sedimentation, 5, 172
agricultural runoff, 3, 11,134, 166, 172
Sex ratios,
fish populations, 25, 26, 27, 93-94
Shannon-Weiner diversity, 85-87
Sharks, 19, 111
Shrimp, 99
red snapper bycatch, 73
Sinks,
see Sources and sinks
Site identification, 5-7, 97-111 (passim), 118, 132, 164, 165, 181-182
see also Zoning and zoning plans
aesthetics, 98, 100-101
area closures, 6, 97-111, 132, 181
biodiversity, 99-102, 103, 105, 107, 181
biogeographic factors, 98-106 (passim)
coastal zones, 5, 103, 109-110, 181
community factors, 97-98
coral reefs, 99, 104-105
cultural factors, 98
current and circulation patterns, 103
definitional issues, 106
dispersal factors, 98, 99, 105, 109
economic factors, 97-98
ecosystem approach, 99, 104
educational opportunities, 98, 101
enforcement factors, 118
fisheries management, general, 97-98, 99, 100-101, 104, 105, 110, 111
integrated management and, 5
international waters, 108-109, 110-111
migratory species, 98-99
models and modeling, 99-102, 107-108
mineral resources, 104-105, 110
monitoring, 98, 101
networks and networking, 99, 102, 104, 105-109
overfishing, 111
political factors, 98
pollution, 104, 109-110
rare, threatened, and endangered species, 100-101, 104, 105
recreation uses, 97, 98, 100-101, 107, 181
regional factors, 98-107 (passim)
research opportunities, 98, 101, 181-182
size of, 6, 97, 99, 100-101, 111-118, 121, 132, 178-179, 243, 255-256
social factors, 97-98, 99, 100-101
spawning aggregation sites, 105
terrestrial ecosystems, 100-101, 103, 109-110
wetlands, 103
Size of fish,
see Body size
Suggested Citation:
"Index." National Research Council. 2001. Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/9994.
Page 270
Social factors, 4, 3, 43, 43-46, 54, 177
see also Aesthetics;
Community-level factors (human);
Cultural factors;
Heritage value;
Historical sites;
Political factors;
Public education;
Public opinion;
Recreational uses
ethics,
environmental, 43-45, 113, 141-142, 247 215,
grouper sex change, 25, 26
location of reserves, 97-98, 99, 100-101
monitoring, 126, 127, 131, 134-135
safety, 104
voluntary support, 67-68
zoning plans, 118, 121
Socioeconomic factors, xi , 6, 42, 59, 65, 68, 69, 118, 121, 125, 126, 181, 244
monitoring, 126, 127, 131, 134-135, 216
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 20-21
Sources and sinks, 18, 60, 93-94, 107-108, 133
defined, 217-218
South Africa, 101-102, 130, 132-133, 254-255
South Atlantic Fishery Management Council, 163
Spatial factors, 71-72, 123, 183, 248, 256
see also Area closures;
Connectivity;
Dispersal;
Geographic factors;
Networks and networking;
Temporal closures;
Zoning and zoning plans
core areas, 119, 180, 215, 255
endemism, 6, 19, 104, 110, 136, 177, 215
extinction, 83
fisheries, 32, 33-35, 55, 56, 58, 59, 127-128, 131, 183;
see also Area closures;
Dispersal
monitoring, 127-128, 130, 131
natural variability, 78-79
size of reserves, 6, 97, 99, 100-101, 111-118, 121, 130, 132, 178-179, 243, 255-256
stock assessments, 32, 33-34, 183
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 17-18
Spawning aggregation sites, 22, 24, 72, 243
grouper, 25-26
location of reserves, 105
red snapper, Gulf of Mexico, 73
size of reserves, 116
zoning plans, 120
Spawning and rearing habitat, 5, 24, 72, 76, 96, 172, 175, 177, 181
see also Larval stage
allee effect, 93, 114, 214, 254
essential, 75
location of reserves, 105
monitoring, 131
size of reserves, 6, 112
Spawning stock biomass, 61, 101, 175, 180, 249, 250, 252, 253
defined 180(n.1), 218
Species diversity,
see Biodiversity;
Genetic diversity
Spillover, 75, 76, 84, 88, 91, 94-95, 107, 117, 139, 177, 254
Stanford University, 139
State government, 170-171, 172-173
agency coordination, 4, 8, 171, 183-184, 234-235
fisheries management, 38, 39, 154, 163, 172
National Estuarine Research Reserves, 74, 160-161, 170
parks, 151, 152-153
St. Lucia, 80, 96, 116, 130
Stock assessments, ix , 31, 34, 32-34, 36, 37, 59, 66, 131, 132, 249
see also Recruitment
age structure, 124, 127, 131, 177, 178
cost-benefit analysis, 41
models, 36, 49, 56-57, 72, 76, 180, 182, 183, 247-248
red snapper,
Gulf of Mexico, 73
single-species, 33, 73
spatial factors, 32, 33-34, 183
temporal closures and, 247-248
temporal factors, other, 30, 32, 33-34, 40, 55
uncertainty, 26-27, 30, 31, 37-38, 40-41, 66, 76-78, 79-80, 112, 113, 247-248, 249
Sumilon Islands, 69
Sustainablity, 2, 13, 17, 28, 177, 233, 237, 245-246
see also Overfishing
defined, 218, 245
fisheries, 14, 28, 30, 32, 33, 46, 49, 59, 74-75, 114, 177-178, 180, 251
maximum sustainable yield, 33, 35, 40, 174, 216
Suggested Citation:
"Index." National Research Council. 2001. Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/9994.
Page 271
total allowable catch (TAC), 27, 37, 39, 62, 218
Swordfish, 19, 95, 111
Systematics, 128, 129, 130, 142, 152
T
TAC,
see Total allowable catch (TAC)
Tagging studies, 91, 95, 139-140
Tanzania, 130
Taxonomy,
see Systematics
Temperate zones, general, 2, 94
fisheries, 33-34
Temperature factors, 3, 44, 75, 77, 78, 134
coastal, 43
larval dispersal, 88
Temporal closures, 31, 33-34, 36-37, 38, 40, 123, 174, 248
see also Seasonal restrictions
rotating closures, 34, 35, 124
stock assessments, 247-248
zoning plans, 123
Temporal factors, general
abundance and diversity recovery, 108
cost-benefit analysis, 179
disasters, 256
extinction, 248
fish body size, 81
fisheries management, 36, 172, 183
seasonal restrictions, 31, 36, 38, 55, 119, 123, 174
stock assessments, 30, 32, 33-34, 40, 55
see also Temporal closures
monitoring, 127-128, 130, 131
natural variability, 78-79
terrestrial vs marine ecosystems, 18
zoning plans, 122
Terrestrial ecosystems, 5, 11, 13-14, 15, 98, 165-166, 170, 172, 239, 244-245
see also Coastal zones;
Wetlands
agricultural activities, 3, 11, 74, 134, 166, 172
human perception, marine ecosystems vs , 18, 19-20
location of reserves, 100-101, 103, 109-110
marine ecosystems compared, 17-20, 169-170
runoff, 3, 11, 134, 166, 172
Wilderness Act, 169-170
Territorial use rights fisheries, 17, 62
exclusive economic zones, 20, 38, 39, 149, 180, 215
Texas Flower Gardens, 72
Threatened species,
see Rare, threatened, and endangered species
Time factors,
see Temporal factors, general;
Temporal closures
Tortugas,
see Dry Tortugas
Total allowable catch (TAC), 27, 37, 39, 62, 218
defined, 218
Trawling,
see Bottom trawling
Trophic models, 82, 144
Tropical zones, general, 2, 94
Tourism,
see Recreational uses
Tuna, 30
U
Uncertainty, 13, 14, 31, 180, 184
bycatch and discards, 41
extinction, 248
fishery management systems, general, 38-39, 40-41, 112, 172, 249
natural variability, 78-79
size of reserves, 112, 113, 116
stock assessments, 26-27, 30, 31, 37-38, 40-41, 66, 76-78, 79-80, 112, 113, 247-248, 249
total allowable catch (TAC), 37
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 20, 146, 148, 149, 150
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 148
United Nations Environment Programme, 146, 147-148
V
Vents,
see Hydrothermal vents
Vessel monitoring systems, 183
Virgin Islands, 91, 109, 233, 235, 236
Voluntary support, 67-68
Suggested Citation:
"Index." National Research Council. 2001. Marine Protected Areas: Tools for Sustaining Ocean Ecosystems. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/9994.
Page 272
W
Washington State, 124, 151, 170
Waterfowl, 10, 18, 42, 103, 111, 146, 147, 161-162
Water quality, 5, 127, 171
see also Pollution
algal blooms, 5, 73
Wetlands, 6, 18, 74, 77, 243
exotic species, 74
fish habitat, 2
historical perspectives, 2, 146, 147
location of reserves, 103
mangroves, 22, 28, 105, 146
pollution of, 74
Wilderness, 11, 169-170, 232, 237, 239-240
Wilderness Act, 169-170, 232
Whales, 51-52, 54, 181
World Conservation Strategy, 68, 146, 150
World Conservation Union, 11, 68-69, 98, 111, 146, 148, 149, 150, 237-246
World Heritage Convention,
see Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
World Wide Web,
see Internet
World Wildlife Fund, 146, 150
Z
Zoning and zoning plans, 5, 6-7, 77-78, 99, 107-108, 118-123, 125, 159, 164, 176, 238
see also Buffer zones
area closures, 119-120, 124
buffer zones, 48, 94, 116, 177, 214
coastal zones, 120, 121, 124, 159
community-level factors, 121, 122
cost-benefit analysis, 48, 121, 122
cultural factors, 118
definitions, 12, 218
economic factors, 121, 122
education, 122
enforcement, 121, 122, 123
fisheries management, 7, 119, 120, 122-124
monitoring, 126
overfishing, 124
pollution, 77-78
precautionary approach, 123, 124
public opinion, 121, 122
rare, threatened, and endangered species, 118-119, 120
recreation uses, 119
research, 118, 119, 122, 126
social factors, 118, 121;
see also “community-level factors” supra
spawning aggregation sites, 120
temporal closures, 123
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