TCRP OVERSIGHT AND PROJECT SELECTION COMMISSION*

CHAIR

Jameson Auten

Lane Transit District

VICE CHAIR

Ryan I. Daniel

St. Cloud Metro Bus

SECRETARY/TREASURER

Brad Miller

Pinellas Suncoast Transit Authority (PSTA)

IMMEDIATE PAST CHAIR

Jeanne Krieg

Eastern Contra Costa Transit Authority (retired)

MEMBERS

Rashidi Barnes

Eastern Contra Costa Transit Authority

Andrea Burnside

Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority

Julia Castillo

Heart of Iowa Transit Authority

April Chan

San Mateo County Transit District

Desmond Cole

Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority

David Harris

New Mexico Department of Transportation

Tim Healy

Sound Transit

Brendon Hemily

Hemily and Associates

Vince Huerta

East Texas Council of Governments

Debra Johnson

Denver Regional Transportation District

Joseph Leader

HDR

Benjamin Limmer

Connecticut Department of Transportation

Bacarra Mauldin

Edward Kizeto, LLC

Jessica Mefford-Miller

Valley Metro

Raymond Melleady

USSC Group

Meghan Merritt

Movitas Mobility

Karen Philbrick

Mineta Transportation Institute, San Jose State University

Elizabeth Presutti

Charlotte Area Transit System

Charles Reeves

Pittsburgh Regional Transit

Catherine Rinaldi

Consultant

Jeffrey Rosenberg

Amalgamated Transit Union

Judy Shanley

Easterseals

Frank White, III

Kansas City Area Transportation Authority

EX OFFICIO MEMBERS

Tariq Bokhari

FTA

Victoria Sheehan

TRB

Gloria Shepherd

FHWA

Paul P. Skoutelas

APTA

Jim Tymon

AASHTO

TOPS COMMISSION STAFF ADVISOR

Arthur L. Guzzetti

APTA

SECRETARY

Monique R. Evans

TRB

__________________

^* Membership as of August 2025.

TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM

TCRP SYNTHESIS 181

Planning and Operations Initiatives to Support Nighttime Transit Ridership

A Synthesis of Transit Practice

Reinaldo Germano
Drefnie Limprevil
Aileen Daney
Andrew Zalewski

Foursquare Integrated Transportation Planning, Inc.

Washington, DC

Subject Areas

Public Transportation

Research sponsored by the Federal Transit Administration in cooperation with the American Public Transportation Association

2025

TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM

The nationʼs growth and the need to meet mobility, environmental, and energy objectives place demands on public transit systems. Current systems, some of which are old and in need of upgrading, must expand service area, increase service frequency, and improve efficiency to serve these demands. Research is necessary to solve operating problems, adapt appropriate new technologies from other industries, and introduce innovations into the transit industry. The Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) serves as one of the principal means by which the transit industry can develop innovative near-term solutions to meet demands placed on it.

The need for TCRP was originally identified in TRB Special Report 213—Research for Public Transit: New Directions, published in 1987 and based on a study sponsored by the Urban Mass Transportation Administration—now the Federal Transit Administration (FTA). A report by the American Public Transportation Association (APTA), Transportation 2000, also recognized the need for local, problem-solving research. TCRP, modeled after the successful National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), undertakes research and other technical activities in response to the needs of transit service providers. The scope of TCRP includes various transit research fields including planning, service configuration, equipment, facilities, operations, human resources, maintenance, policy, and administrative practices.

TCRP was established under FTA sponsorship in July 1992. Proposed by the U.S. Department of Transportation, TCRP was authorized as part of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA). On May 13, 1992, a memorandum agreement outlining TCRP operating procedures was executed by the three cooperating organizations: FTA; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, acting through the Transportation Research Board (TRB); and APTA. APTA is responsible for forming the independent governing board, designated as the TCRP Oversight and Project Selection (TOPS) Commission.

Research problem statements for TCRP are solicited periodically but may be submitted to TRB by anyone at any time. It is the responsibility of the TOPS Commission to formulate the research program by identifying the highest priority projects. As part of the evaluation, the TOPS Commission defines funding levels and expected products.

Once selected, each project is assigned to an expert panel appointed by TRB. The panels prepare project statements (requests for proposals), select contractors, and provide technical guidance and counsel throughout the life of the project. The process for developing research problem statements and selecting research agencies has been used by TRB in managing cooperative research programs since 1962. As in other TRB activities, TCRP project panels serve voluntarily without compensation.

Because research cannot have the desired effect if products fail to reach the intended audience, special emphasis is placed on disseminating TCRP results to the intended users of the research: transit agencies, service providers, and suppliers. TRB provides a series of research reports, syntheses of transit practice, and other supporting material developed by TCRP research. APTA will arrange for workshops, training aids, field visits, and other activities to ensure that results are implemented by urban and rural transit industry practitioners.

TCRP provides a forum where transit agencies can cooperatively address common operational problems. TCRP results support and complement other ongoing transit research and training programs.

TCRP SYNTHESIS 181

Project J-07/Topic SA-62
ISSN 2572-3782
ISBN 978-0-309-99541-2

© 2025 by the National Academy of Sciences. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and the graphical logo are trademarks of the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

COPYRIGHT INFORMATION

Authors herein are responsible for the originality and accuracy of their materials and for obtaining written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously published or copyrighted material used herein.

The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) grants permission to reproduce written material in this publication for classroom and non-commercial purposes subject to the rights of any third parties and appropriate attribution. Permission is given with the understanding that none of the material will be used to imply NAS, TRB, AASHTO, APTA, FAA, FHWA, FTA, GHSA, or NHTSA endorsement of a particular product, method, or practice. For other uses of the written material, users must request permission from the National Academies Press.

NOTICE

The report was reviewed by the technical panel and accepted for publication according to procedures established and overseen by the Transportation Research Board and approved by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Transportation, FTA, in the interest of information exchange. The U.S. government assumes no liability for the contents or use thereof. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed or implied in this document are those of the researchers who performed the research and are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; or the program sponsors.

The Transportation Research Board does not develop, issue, or publish standards or specifications. The Transportation Research Board manages applied research projects which provide the scientific foundation that may be used by Transportation Research Board sponsors, industry associations, or other organizations as the basis for revised practices, procedures, or specifications.

The Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; and the sponsors of the Transit Cooperative Research Program do not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturersʼ names or logos appear herein solely because they are considered essential to the object of the report.

Published reports of the

TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM

are available from

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and can be ordered through the Internet by going to

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Printed in the United States of America

The National Academy of Sciences was established in 1863 by an Act of Congress, signed by President Lincoln, as a private, nongovernmental institution to advise the nation on issues related to science and technology. Members are elected by their peers for outstanding contributions to research. Dr. Marcia McNutt is president.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964 under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences to bring the practices of engineering to advising the nation. Members are elected by their peers for extraordinary contributions to engineering. Dr. Tsu-Jae Liu is president.

The National Academy of Medicine (formerly the Institute of Medicine) was established in 1970 under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences to advise the nation on medical and health issues. Members are elected by their peers for distinguished contributions to medicine and health. Dr. Victor J. Dzau is president.

The three Academies work together as the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine to provide independent, objective analysis and advice to the nation and conduct other activities to solve complex problems and inform public policy decisions. The National Academies also encourage education and research, recognize outstanding contributions to knowledge, and increase public understanding in matters of science, engineering, and medicine.

Learn more about the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine at www.nationalacademies.org.

The Transportation Research Board is one of seven major program divisions of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. The mission of the Transportation Research Board is to mobilize expertise, experience, and knowledge to anticipate and solve complex transportation-related challenges. The Boardʼs varied activities annually engage about 8,500 engineers, scientists, and other transportation researchers and practitioners from the public and private sectors and academia, all of whom contribute their expertise in the public interest. The program is supported by state departments of transportation, federal agencies including the component administrations of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and other organizations and individuals interested in the development of transportation.

Learn more about the Transportation Research Board at www.TRB.org.

COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS

CRP STAFF FOR TCRP SYNTHESIS 181

Monique R. Evans, Director, Cooperative Research Programs

Waseem Dekelbab, Deputy Director, Cooperative Research Programs

Gwen Chisholm Smith, Manager, Transit Cooperative Research Program

Jamaal Schoby, Senior Program Officer

Oulimata Khoule, Senior Program Assistant

Natalie Barnes, Director of Publications

Margaret B. Hagood, Senior Editor

TCRP PROJECT J-07 PANEL

Rachel Dungca, Metro Transit, Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minneapolis, MN (Chair)

Jameson Auten, Lane Transit District, Eugene, OR

Mallory Avis, Battle Creek Transit, Battle Creek, MI

Raymond Chan, Arcadis, Kettering, OH

Roderick B. Diaz, Southern California Regional Rail Authority, Los Angeles, CA

Mark Donaghy, Petersburg, KY

Christian T. Kent, Christian T. Kent, Transit Management Consulting, LLC, Virginia Beach, VA

Beverly Neff, San Diego Metropolitan Transit System, San Diego, CA

Ed F. Watt, WattADR, Rockaway Park, NY

David C. Wilcock, VHB, Boston, MA

Robert Earl Williams III, Ann Arbor Transportation Authority, Ann Arbor, MI

Tara Echols, FTA Liaison

Arthur L. Guzzetti, APTA Liaison

TOPIC SA-62 PANEL

Mark Donaghy, Petersburg, KY

Tony Filippini, Des Moines Area Regional Transit Authority, Des Moines, IA

Jose Hernandez, Cubic Transportation Systems, Inc., San Diego, CA

Al Himes, Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority, Washington, DC

Bruce Jones, Charlotte Area Transit System, Charlotte, NC

Aimee Reichert, Lane Transit District, Eugene, OR

John Santamaria, Clever Devices, Ltd., Woodbury, NY

Kimberly J. Williams, Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County, Houston, TX

Sam Winward, Pittsburgh Regional Transit, Pittsburgh, PA

Patrick Centolanzi, FTA Liaison

Ivey Glendon, FTA Liaison

ABOUT THE TCRP SYNTHESIS PROGRAM

Transit administrators, engineers, and researchers often face problems for which information already exists, either in documented form or as undocumented experience and practice. This information may be fragmented, scattered, and unevaluated. As a consequence, full knowledge of what has been learned about a problem may not be brought to bear on its solution. Costly research findings may go unused, valuable experience may be overlooked, and due consideration may not be given to recommended practices for solving or alleviating the problem.

There is information on nearly every subject of concern to the transit industry. Much of it derives from research or from the work of practitioners faced with problems in their day-to-day work. To provide a systematic means for assembling and evaluating such useful information and to make it available to the entire transit community, the Transit Cooperative Research Program Oversight and Project Selection (TOPS) Commission authorized the Transportation Research Board to undertake a continuing study. This study, TCRP Project J-07, “Synthesis of Information Related to Transit Practices,” searches out and synthesizes useful knowledge from all available sources and prepares concise, documented reports on specific topics. Reports from this endeavor constitute a TCRP report series, Synthesis of Transit Practice.

This synthesis series reports on current knowledge and practice, in a compact format, without the detailed directions usually found in handbooks or design manuals. Each report in the series provides a compendium of the best knowledge available on those measures found to be the most successful in resolving specific problems.

FOREWORD

By Jamaal Schoby
Staff Officer
Transportation Research Board

COVID-19 pandemic stay-at-home orders and social distancing protocols, followed by relaxed in-office policies, caused a decline in transit ridership across the United States. The pandemic-induced shift toward remote and hybrid work arrangements significantly impacted peak hour ridership; however, off-peak ridership exhibited greater resilience. As a result, many transit agencies began re-evaluating their service strategies, placing greater emphasis on nighttime service enhancements to better serve emerging travel patterns and support those who rely on transit outside conventional work hours. Access to reliable nighttime service remains a critical need—particularly for shift and service workers (often categorized as essential workers), who frequently face limited transportation options during late-night hours.

This synthesis documents current practices undertaken by transit agencies to support nighttime transit ridership and focuses on how transit agencies prioritize service improvements to support nighttime transit demand and address the needs of essential workers. This publication begins with a literature review synthesizing existing research and contextualizing the challenges and opportunities associated with nighttime transit service. To complement the literature review, a survey of 25 transit agencies offers a snapshot of current practices and experiences from agencies operating nighttime services. Then, five case examples examine strategies related to safety, operations, resource allocation, ridership trends, and partnerships. This publication concludes with synthesizing key findings, identifies barriers and challenges, highlights notable best practices, and suggests areas for further research.

Reinaldo Germano with Foursquare Integrated Transportation Planning, Inc., was the principal investigator for this study and was supported by Drefnie Limprevil, Aileen Daney, and Andrew Zalewski. The members of the topic panel are acknowledged on page iv. This synthesis is an immediately useful document that records the practices that were acceptable within the limitations of the knowledge available at the time of its preparation. As progress in research and practice continues, new knowledge will be added to that now at hand.

CONTENTS

Summary

Chapter 1 Introduction 

Background

Key Terms

Objective and Scope

Technical Approach to Project

Chapter 2 Literature Review 

Introduction

Overview of Post-COVID Ridership Trends

Nighttime Economies

Planning Nighttime Service

Characteristics of Nighttime Transit Service

Intergovernmental and Private Partnerships

Conclusion

Chapter 3 Survey 

Introduction

Respondents Overview

Role of Nighttime Transit

Scope of Nighttime Transit Services

Planning Activities to Support Nighttime Transit

Performance Monitoring

Safety Initiatives

Key Takeaways

Chapter 4 Case Examples 

Safety

Operational Solutions

Resources

Ridership Patterns and Recovery

Partnerships

Chapter 5 Conclusion 

Key Findings

Barriers and Challenges

Notable Practices and Lessons Learned

Further Research Needs

References

Appendix A Survey Questionnaire 

Appendix B Case Example Interviews