A

Acanthostega, 88, 102, 106

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 14

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 14

Aetosaurs, 151, 197

Age of Earth, 5, 32

Age of first animals, 52

Age of Universe, 32

Algae, 55, 93–94

Allonautilus, 71, 74, 75

Allosaurus, 167, 178, 202

Alroy, John, 225

Altitude.

See also High altitudes compression, 47, 141, 154–155

sickness, ix

Alvarez Impact Hypothesis, 138, 167

Ambulacra, 65

American Museum of Natural History, 52, 208

Ammonites, 71, 106, 163, 197, 199, 213, 215, 216–218, 223

Ammonoids, 71, 73, 113, 114, 133, 144, 159

Amphibians

adaptive radiation, 105

diversity, 195, 196

evolution of, 100–104

gigantism, 113

heart, 125

reproductive strategy, 120

reptile differentiation, 121

respiratory system, 100, 103, 104–105, 195

Romer’s Gap, 103, 104–108, 109

tadpole stage, 104

transition from gill to lungs, 100, 103, 104–105

Amphioxus, 76

Amphipods, 115

Anapsids, 126, 127, 130, 151, 211

Angelyck, Ken, 153

Anhydrate, 36, 37

Animal-free zones, 15–17

Annelids, 12, 15, 57, 59, 60–61, 93, 95

Anomalocaris, 57, 79, 84, 161

Anoxic environments

atmosphere, 38

continental drift and, 231–232

and mass extinctions, 102, 142, 204

in oceans and seas, 15–17, 32, 53, 75, 102, 106, 142, 204, 231–234

Arandaspis, 85

Archaeognatha, 98

Archaeopteris, 88

Archaeopteryx, 178, 185, 206

Archeocyathids, 83

Archosaurs, 151, 152–153, 160, 162, 177, 188, 211, 212

Arizona State University, 115

Arthropleura, 110

Arthropods, 3.

See also specific arthropods

body plan, 10, 12, 51, 56–57, 59, 64, 111–112

Cambrian, 51, 52, 56–57, 58–63

diversity, 109

gigantism, 91, 111–112, 113, 115

land colonization, 93, 95–96, 98, 99, 107

mass extinctions, 78–79

Ordovician, 82

respiratory systems, 22, 60–61, 95, 96

segmentation, 57, 58–63, 91

Silurian, 91, 93, 95–96, 98, 99

Asteroid impact. See Meteor/asteroid impacts

Atmosphere.

See also Carbon dioxide;

Nitrogen;

Oxygen;

Oxygen-poor conditions;

Oxygen-rich conditions

COPSE model, 39

determinants of changes, 35–37, 38–39

forcings, 38–39

functions of, 31

GEOCARB model, 38

GEOCARBSULF model, 38–39, 41

measuring changes, 37–39

origins, 32–33

ozone layer, 35, 143

present-day composition, 1, 31, 32, 34

pressure, 184

B

Bacteria, 83

in anoxic environments, 16, 214–215

cyanobacteria, 34–35, 53–54

methanogens, 215

plant decomposition, 117

respiration, 12, 14

sulfur-metabolizing, 134, 136, 141–142, 164

Bakker, Robert, 152, 173–174, 175–176, 180, 200, 205

Banded iron formations, 34

Bardet, Nathalie, 190

Basalt floods and, 140–141, 233

Becker, Luann, 139, 140

Beerling, David, 119

Bennett, Albert, 188

Benton, Mike, 154

Bergman, Noah, 39

Berner, Robert, 36, 38, 39, 44, 99, 140, 141, 235

Birds

bipedalism, 166

bone pneumaticity, 181–183, 185, 206

Cretaceous, 152, 173, 175, 178

endothermy, 145, 147, 150, 151, 174, 176, 178, 207

evolution, 1, 48, 121, 174, 178, 185, 199, 200, 202, 206–207

first, 185

flight, 176, 178, 200, 206–207

heart, 150

at high altitudes, 122

Jurassic, 174, 199, 202

reproduction, 122, 208, 212

respiratory system, ix–x, 27–28, 147, 148, 171, 172–174, 176–177, 179, 181, 184, 207

Bivalves

arthropods, 56–57

brachiopods, 56, 81, 82–83

low-oxygen-tolerant, 214–216

mollusks, 22, 23, 27, 65, 68, 69, 70, 159, 163, 199, 214–216

Black Sea, 16, 35, 142

Blood pigments, 13, 14–15, 263.

See also Circulatory system

Body plans of animals

anterior and posterior design, 12

appendages/protrusions, 12, 20, 23, 59

aquatic, 214–221

bipedal, 162–163, 165–171, 200

classification systems, 9–10

elongated, 20

exoskeletons, 59, 60, 112

fossil record, 2

functional origin, 11–12

limitations on, 111–112

mass extinctions and, 159

morphological changes during speciation events, 46, 78–79, 102

nerve tissue, 20, 227–228

protective, 111, 162

and respiratory structures and systems, 2, 6–7, 10–11, 19, 20, 26, 27–28, 42–48, 111, 124–125, 165

segmentation, 12, 57, 58–63, 65, 69, 91

size limits, 111

skeletons, 12, 220

squat and compact, 20

Theory of Punctuated Equilibrium, 46

Brachiopods

bivalve, 56, 81, 82–83

Cambrian, 58, 64

extinction, 95, 133, 137, 159, 163

inarticulate, 56

lophophore, 65–66, 67, 83

Ordovician, 87

pentamerid, 91–92

respiratory structures, 64, 70, 87

Silurian, 89

spiny, 114

Briggs, Derek, 58

Bryozoans, 65, 81, 82, 83, 95, 133

Bucky Balls, 139–140

Burgess Shale fauna, 2, 55, 56, 58, 59, 64, 66, 72, 75, 79, 161

C

Calcium carbonate, 219–221

Cambrian Explosion, xi, 11

arthropod diversity and disparity, 51, 52, 56–57, 58–63

carbon dioxide levels, 44, 53

chordate evolution, 57–58, 75–78

climate and, 43, 53

fossil record, 2, 3, 51, 56

importance of, 52–53, 161

landscape and environment, 42, 43, 44, 53–57

marine life, 55–58, 65, 67–75, 136

mass extinctions, 78–79, 81, 84, 86, 87, 89, 130, 161

molluscan evolution, 65, 67–75

oxygen levels, 41, 53, 54, 78, 129–130, 161

plant life, 53–54

respiratory systems of animals, 60–67

segmented body plans, 57, 58–63

speciation rate, 103

time interval, 52

Cambridge University, 11

Canadapsis, 56

Carbon, organic, 16, 36

Carbon cycle, 36, 37, 38, 79, 116, 164, 220–221, 229–230

Carbon dioxide

atmospheric changes over time, 10, 32, 33–34, 35, 38, 41, 44, 53, 138, 184, 186, 204, 223

basalt flood and, 140–141, 233

and calcium carbonate formation, 218–221

catastrophe, 140

and diversification rates, 44–45

forcings, 38–39

GEOCARB models, 38, 41

greenhouse effect, 41, 45, 140, 143, 189

and mass extinctions, 140

oxygen from, 34–35

and plant evolution, 44, 94, 137

respiratory waste product, 14, 15, 23, 24

solubility in water vs. air, 18, 19

volcanic, 33, 35

Carboniferous-Early Permian Period, 40–41

amniotic egg evolution, 113, 120–124

atmospheric pressure, 115–116

climate, 112, 117, 120, 129

continental drift, 116–117

evolution, 119–124

forest fires, 112, 117–118

insects, 113, 114–117

landscape, 112–114

marine life, 113–114

oxygen levels, 109, 110, 114–119, 130–131

plants, 112–113, 117, 118–119

reptiles, 120–131, 171

size of animals, 111–112, 113, 130–131

Carrier, David, 124

Carrier’s Constraint, 124, 166, 168

Carroll, Robert, 101

Cenozoic Era, subdivisions, 41

Cephalopods

body plan, 67, 71, 80, 85, 132

buoyancy organ, 70–71, 72–74, 85

carnivores, 85

chambered, xi, 70–75, 84–85, 199

competition, 89, 113

diversification, 92, 144, 159, 199

evolution of, 2, 65, 70–75

extinctions, 136, 137, 163

gigantism, 87

locomotion, 72, 74, 75, 85

low-oxygen-tolerant, 216–218

metabolism, 217

respiratory system, 15, 69, 71, 74, 75, 85, 87, 217–218

shelled, 3, 71, 72–74, 113

Ceratites, 158, 163

Ceratopsians, 202, 203

Ceratosaurs, 202

Chapelle, Gautier, 115

Charophyceae, 93–94

Chasmatosaurus, 165

Chelicerates, 15

Chengjiang fossils, 55–57, 58, 64, 75, 76, 77, 207

Chicxulub asteroid strike, 71, 118

Chinsamy, Anusuya, 185

Chitons, 69, 70

Chordates

evolution of, 57–58, 75–78, 87

land colonization, 95, 120

Chriacus, 222

Chuandianella, 57

Ciliates and cilia, 15, 23

Circulatory systems, 25, 26, 150, 152, 263

Cistecephalus, 131

Clack, Jenny, 103, 104

Claessens, Leon, 181, 182–183

Clams

beds, 215–216

low-oxygen-tolerant, 214–216, 223

siphonate, 214

Classification systems, 9–10

Climate.

See also Temperatures, ambient

by geological period, 30, 41

glaciations, 112, 120, 129, 137

global warming, 134, 137, 143, 146–147, 156, 184, 229

greenhouse effect, 33–34, 41, 43, 45, 53, 140, 142, 143, 186, 229, 230

and mass extinctions, 106, 120, 134, 137, 140, 142, 156

sea level rise and, 232

and speciation events, 43, 53

Cnidaria, 10, 63–64, 95, 133

Coal Age, 117–118

Coccolithophorids, 213, 220, 221

Coelacanth, 100

Coelophysis, 177, 202

Coleoids, 199

Collier, Fred, 58

Comatulids, 214

Comet impacts, 33.

See also Meteor/asteroid impacts

Competition, 10, 42, 43, 48

Complexity of life, and energy requirements, 13

Continental drift, 116–117, 129, 134, 138, 230–23

Cope, Edward, 92

COPSE model, 39

Corals, 81, 86, 87, 114, 144, 160, 163

Cornette, James, 44, 45

Cotylosaurs, 127

Crabs, 22, 63, 218–219

Cretaceous Period

birds, 152, 173, 175, 178

carbon dioxide levels, 223

dinosaurs, 3, 48, 175, 179–180, 183, 193–194, 200, 202, 203, 205, 208–209, 211, 213

diversification, 3, 48, 194

endothermic adaptation, 152

mammals, 199, 222, 224–228

marine fauna, 3, 213–221

mass extinctions, 118, 203, 218, 222, 223, 225

oxygen levels, 183, 222, 223, 225–227

plant life, 194, 205, 223

respiratory systems, 173

time interval, 41

Crinoids, 80, 113–114, 133, 136, 214

Crocodiles, 144, 151, 152, 168, 169, 172, 177, 179, 180, 184–185, 195, 196, 208

Crossopterygians, 100

Crurotarsans, 151

Crustaceans, 2, 15

Ctenophores, 56

Cyanobacteria, 34–35, 53–54

Cymbospondylus, 158, 190

Cynodonts, 130, 135, 146, 147, 160, 161, 169, 188, 223

D

Darwin, Charles, 2, 5, 6, 51

Dawkins, Richard, 3

de Riqules, A., 152

Demosponges, 56, 82

Desiccation, 68, 93, 94–95, 211

Devonian Period, 40–41.

See also Silurian-Devonian interval

mass extinctions, 48, 92, 102, 106

oxygen levels, 48

Diagoniella, 50

Diapsids, 126–127, 135, 151, 165, 168, 177, 211

Dicynodonts, 130, 131, 135, 146, 160, 161, 165

Diictodon, 131, 132, 153

Dimetrodon (Sail Back), 110, 113, 127, 128, 146

Dinocephalians, 129, 130, 131

Dinosaurs

air sac controversy, 173–183, 184, 185–186, 187, 206

armored, 202–203

body plans, 48, 162–163, 166, 167–168, 170–171, 191–192, 200, 201–204

bone pneumaticity, 175, 177, 179, 180, 181–182, 183, 185, 195, 197, 200, 205, 206

Chinese fossils, 179–180

Cretaceous, 3, 48, 175, 179–180, 183, 193–194, 200, 202, 203, 205, 208–209, 211, 213

diversity and disparity, 192–193, 195–197, 204–205

ectothermy, 178–179, 186–187, 188, 189, 206

endothermy, 125, 126, 127, 151–153, 167, 179, 184, 186, 206

evolution, 144, 151, 165–168, 169–170, 177–179, 184, 188, 200, 201–204

extinctions, 203, 207, 223

first, 167, 170, 177, 184, 200

flying, 169–170

gastralia, 183

herbivores, 204–205

history of, 201–204

Jurassic, 3, 122, 175, 177–178, 183, 185, 187, 194, 196, 199, 200, 202–203, 204, 209, 213

locomotion, 168–169

low-oxygen adaptations, 151, 166–167, 180, 188–191

Mesozoic, 127, 184, 194

metabolism, 151, 184–188, 189, 206

number of, 193–194

reproduction, 207–213

respiratory systems, x, 8, 166–167, 168–169, 170, 173–183, 184–187, 195, 197, 200, 204–205, 206

size of, 194, 201, 202–203, 206

tooth adaptations, 205–206

Triassic, 3, 8, 47, 161, 162–163, 165–171, 177–180, 184–188, 191–194, 196, 201–202, 204, 209, 224

Diplodocus, 198

Diversity, habitat area and, 155, 193

DNA studies, 51, 75–76, 100–101, 121, 225

Dodson, Peter, 184

Dragonflies, 113, 114–115

Dromaeosaurids, 207

Dudley, Robert, 115

E

Echidna, 225

Echinoderms, 15, 64–65, 66, 81, 87, 95, 111, 113–114, 137

Echinoids, 22

Ectothermy (cold-bloodedness)

anapsid reptiles, 127

defined, 125, 126

dinosaurs, 178–179, 186–187, 188, 189, 206

disadvantages in cold environments, 145

and diving adaptation, 152

and heart size, 150, 152

oxygen conditions and, 148–149

synapsid reptiles, 127

Ediacarans, 50, 161

Eldredge, Niles, 46

Endemism, 47, 154–155

Endosymbiosis Theory, 34–35

Endothermy (warm-bloodedness), 26

aerobic capacity model, 149

air sacs and, 174, 176, 178, 179, 184, 207

birds, 145, 147, 150, 151, 174, 176, 178, 207

defined, 125–126

dinosaurs, 125, 126, 127, 151–153, 167, 179, 184, 186, 206

evolution of, 144–150

and four-chambered heart, 150–151, 152

metabolism and, 144–150, 151, 188

and nasal bones, 26, 146, 147, 187

oxygen levels and, 146–150

respiratory implications, 146, 147, 150

Energy expenditure and requirements.

See also Metabolism

air breathers vs. water breathers, 18–19

oxygen and, 12–15

size of animal and, 126, 162

temperature and, 188–191

Eoaluolavis, 207

Eocene, 43

Eoraptor lunesis, 158

Erwin, Doug, 58

Eudimorphodon, 169

Eukaryotes, 35

Euparkeria, 169

Eurypterids, 80, 91, 92

Eutrephoceras, 222

Eutrification, 17

Evolution

adaptive radiation, 105, 192

air sac system, 175, 177–179

amniotic egg and, 113, 120–124

amphibians, 100–104

biotic pressures, 42, 43

carbon dioxide levels and, 44–45

chordate, 75–78

convergent, 11, 60, 151, 178

Cope’s Rule, 92

Darwinian, 2, 5, 51–52

diversification of animal phyla, 51, 52, 86, 192

endothermy, 144–150

environmental pressures, 42, 43

locomotory adaptations, 61

Mesozoic Marine Revolution hypothesis, 42–43, 214

monophyletic stock, 121, 216

natural selection, 42

oxygen levels as driver for, 2, 6–7, 10, 28–29, 42–48, 77–78, 86–87, 104–105, 119–120, 192–193, 235

paedomorphism, 76

rate of change, 44, 45, 86

respiratory adaptations, 25–26, 60, 61, 67–75, 77

Romer’s Gap, 103, 104–108, 109

vertebrates, 46–47, 75–78, 100–104

Extinctions. See Mass extinctions

F

Falkowsky, Paul, 226

Favkosky, David, 194

Fermentation, 12, 14

Fish

air-breathing, 108

amphibian diversification, 100–104

armored, fresh water, 85, 86, 90–91

bony, 100, 113

cartilaginous sharks, 113

extinctions, 133, 137, 163

gills, 24, 77, 85

jawed, 90

locomotion and respiration, 124

skeletonized, 81

thermoregulation, 188

Flatworms, 15, 20, 67

Fluorine, 13

Foraminifera, 213, 220

Forest fires, 112, 117–118

Fortey, Richard, 3

Fossils.

See also Burgess Shale fauna;

Chengjiang fossils

age of first animals, 52

dating of, 5, 39, 52, 104

eggs, 121–122, 123–124, 208, 212

and geological timescale, 39, 40, 51

Greenland tetrapods, 102

Karoo deposits, 129, 134, 153, 165

land animal, 95, 96–97

reptile, 121

Rhynie Chert assemblage, 97, 98

South African, 148

Valentia footprints, 101, 108

Fresh water, oxygen content, 18

G

Garstang, W., 76

Gastropods, 15, 22, 65, 68, 69, 70, 99, 213–214

Geist, Nicholas, 182, 211, 212

GEOCARB models, 38, 41, 141

GEOCARBSULF model, 38–39, 180, 193–194, 195, 204

Geological timescale, 5, 30, 39–41

Gigantism, 91, 111–112, 113, 114–115, 130, 201, 202–203, 206, 215

Gills

circulatory systems, 69, 77

countercurrent systems, 24

enclosed, 219

external systems, 23

as feeding organs, 27, 61, 63–64, 66, 67, 70, 76, 77–78, 83, 215

gnathobase water current system, 61

internal systems, 23, 64, 219

oxygen extraction efficiency, 62–63, 67–68, 75, 235

passive system, 21–22, 61, 62, 67, 70

pouches, 85–85, 105

protective structures and, 67–68, 85

pump systems, 21, 23–24, 61, 64, 66, 67, 68, 71, 75, 76, 77–78, 85, 92, 217

segmentation and, 60–63, 65, 69, 92

shells as part of, 69–71

surface area, 59, 61, 62, 63–64, 69, 77, 92, 97

thickness and size, 23–24

transition to lungs, 103

whole-body, 63

Glaciations, 112, 120, 129, 137

Glass sponges, 56, 82

Global warming, 134, 137, 143, 146–147, 156

Glossopteris, 156

Glucose, 14

God, 6

Goldstein, Robert, 44

Gordon, Malcolm, 103, 105, 108

Gorgonopsians, 130, 131, 132, 135

Gould, Stephen Jay, 4, 11, 46, 75

Graptolites, 86

Greenhouse effect, 33–34, 41, 43, 45, 53, 140, 142, 143, 186

Greenhouse gases, 32.

See also Carbon dioxide;

other specific gases

Gulf of Mexico, 16–17, 75

Gypsum, 36, 37

H

Hadrocodium, 198

Hadrosaurs, 203, 205

Halobia, 215, 216

Harvard University, 140

Heart size and configuration, 26, 77, 263

four-chambered, 150–151, 152, 187

thermoregulation and, 150–151, 152

three-chambered, 125

Heavy Bombardment period, 33

Hemerythrin, 15

Hemicyclopsis, 86

Hemoglobin, 14–15

Herrerasaurus, 168, 170

Hesperonis, 222

High altitudes.

See also Oxygen-poor conditions

birds at, 122, 148, 174

mammalian reproductive limits, 227

and oxygen, 18

respiratory system efficiency, 28–29, 148

Hillenius, Willem, 147, 148, 185

Hirsch, Karl, 211

History of life

basic questions, 3–4

Cenozoic mammals, 223–225

chronology, 3, 4, 5, 52–53

classification systems, 9–10

dinosaurs, 201–204

driving forces, 4

evolution, 2, 5

extraterrestrial replication of Earth, 11

fossil and genetic record, 4–5

geological timescale, 5, 30, 39–41

pre-Cambrian, 42

Romer’s Gap, 103, 104–108, 109

scientific study, 4–5, 6

stratigraphic study, 5

terrestrialization, 92–99

Hooke, Robert, 72

Horner, Jack, 152, 185, 188, 208

Hox gene complex, 62

Huey, Ray, 141, 146, 154, 155, 190

Hydrogen-fluoride bonds, 13

Hydrogen-hydroxyl bonds, 13

Hydrogen sulfide, 37, 134, 136, 141–142, 155, 204

Hydroxyl radicals, 119

Hylonomus, 121

Hynerpeton, 102

Hyoliths, 56

Hypotheses

ammonite body plan, 218

chordate pump gill, 76

crab body plan, 219

dinosaur bipedalism, 168

dinosaur diversity, disparity, and size, 192–193, 204–205

dinosaur reproductive strategy, 213

dinosaur respiratory system, 197

endemism in low-oxygen environments, 154–155

endothermic adaptation to low oxygen, 147, 14

land colonization by animals, 98, 99, 108

molluscan shell pump, 68, 71

oxygen levels as evolutionary driver, 43, 47, 98, 192–193

repeated-segment body plan, 61

reproductive strategy in oxygen-rich environments, 122

test of, 43–48

Hypothetical Ancestral Mollusk (HAM), 68

Hypoxia. See Oxygen-poor conditions

Hypsilophondontids, 202

Hypsilophontids, 203

I

Ichthyosaurs, 122, 164, 190, 191, 199, 200, 209, 213

Ichythostega, 102, 103, 105, 108

Iguanodons, 202

Inoceramus, 216

Insects

Carboniferous, 113, 114–117

floral revolution and, 194

gigantism, 112, 113, 114–115, 130

land colonization, 97, 98, 101

metabolic rates, 115

oxygen levels and, 90, 95, 97

Permian extinction, 135

respiratory system, 15, 96, 115, 130

segmentation, 59

Silurian, 90, 91, 95, 97, 98

thermoregulation, 188

winged, 97, 98, 114–115

Insolation changes, 39, 43, 89

Invertebrates

gill systems, 22, 23, 27

heart, 25

low-oxygen adaptations, 160

sessile, 23

Iron, 16, 36

J

Johns Hopkins University, 120, 227

Jones, Terry, 182

Jurassic Period

birds, 174, 199, 202

dinosaurs, 3, 122, 175, 177–178, 183, 185, 187, 194, 196, 199, 200, 202–203, 204, 209, 213

flyers, 200

fossil record, 129

gigantism, 202–203

mammals, 196, 199, 200

marine fauna, 3, 197, 199, 200, 213–221

mass extinctions, 195–197, 199, 204

oxygen levels, 157, 183, 185, 194, 198, 199, 200, 204, 207–213, 214, 227

rebound, 197

reptiles, 199

time interval, 41

K

Kannemeyeria, 131

Kelvin, Lord, 5

Knoll, Andy, 140

Kosmoceras, 198

Kump, Lee, 141

L

Labandeira, Conrad, 99, 106

Lagosuchus, 170

Lampreys, 86

Lancelet, 76

Land colonization

amphibian evolution, 100–104

annelids, 93, 95

arthropods, 93, 95–96, 98, 99, 107

fossil record, 95, 96–97, 102

insects, 97, 98, 101

mollusks, 93, 95, 99

oxygen levels and, 93–99, 101

plant evolution, 38, 42, 89, 90, 93–94

reproductive strategy and, 120–124

respiration-locomotion dilemma, 124–125

time interval, 89, 90

transition from gills to lungs, 89, 90, 96–97, 105

two-phase, 106–108

vertebrates, 93, 95, 99, 100–104, 107

Land surface, 10

Lane, Nick, 114

Laurin, Michel, 99, 101, 106, 130, 131

Lead, 16

Lenton, Timothy, 39

Lepidodendron, 112

Lieberman, Bruce, 44

Limpets, 136

Lingula, 56

Linnaeus, C., 9

Liopleurodon, 198

Littorina, 55

Lizards, 125, 166, 172, 188, 208, 210

Lobopod, 57

Locomotion

Carrier’s Constraint, 124, 166, 168

dinosaur, 168–169

energy requirements, 13

evolution of, 61

hyponome, 74

on land, 100, 105, 124–125

marine bottom dwellers, 11–12

mollusks, 67, 72, 73, 74, 75, 85

posture and, 165–166

and respiratory system, 20, 22, 24, 61, 65, 71, 74, 75, 85, 124–125, 135, 165–166, 168–169, 172

segmentation and, 12, 61, 62

skeletons and, 12

Long, John, 103, 105, 108

Lophophore, 65–66, 67, 83

Lung fish, 100, 104

Lung systems

air sacs, 172–183, 184, 185–186, 187, 195, 196, 197, 200, 205, 206

alveolar, 171

amniote, 171–174

book lungs, 96

chest morphology, 26, 105, 176–177, 179

circulatory systems, 25, 26, 150, 152, 173, 263

diaphragm (pump), 24, 166, 171, 177, 179, 195

efficiency, 96, 171

and endothermy, 26

gas exchange principle, 24, 25

with gular pumping, 124

hepatic piston pump, 179, 180, 184

land colonization by animals and, 89, 90, 96–97, 105

and locomotion, 124–125

nasal bones, 26, 146, 147, 187

oxygen-poor environments and, 26

passive diffusion, 96

sac-like, 171, 177

septate, 171–172, 177, 179, 187, 196

size, 26

surface area, 96

vertebrates, 27

Lycopsids, 156

Lystrosaurus, 26–27, 131, 135

M

MacArthur, Robert, 155

Mammals

adaptive radiations, 199, 226

body plan, 168–169

Cenozoic, 224–225

Cretaceous, 199, 222, 224–228

endothermy, 145, 146, 147

evolution, 121, 130, 224–225

extinctions, 1

fossil record, 2

high-altitude, 227

human evolution, 227–228

Jurassic, 196, 199, 200, 227

metabolism, 223

oxygen levels and, 224, 225–227

reproductive strategies, 224–225, 226–227

respiratory system, 8, 147, 166, 171, 172

Tertiary diversification, 3

Triassic, 1, 3, 8, 130, 165, 196, 224

size of, 221, 224, 225–227

Maotionshania, 56

Marginocephalians, 202

Margulis, Lynn, 35

Marine life, xi

air breathers, 152, 164

Cambrian, 55–58, 65, 67–75, 136

carbon dioxide and, 44

Carboniferous, 113–114

Cretaceous, 3, 213–221

at deep-sea vents, 215

and diving adaptation, 152

energy metabolism, 18–19, 189–190

eutrification and, 17

Jurassic, 3, 197, 199, 200, 213–221

locomotion, 11–12

low-oxygen body plans, 214–221

lower Paleozoic diversification, 3, 44

Ordovician, 82, 86–87

oxygen levels and, 190–191

re-evolution of terrestrial animals, 188–191

reptiles, 160, 164, 188–191, 199

Silurian, 91–92

thermoregulation, 152

Triassic, 159–160, 163–164, 188–191, 214, 215

Marrella, 50, 59

Mass extinctions.

See also Permian extinctions

asteroid impacts and, 3, 71, 106, 118, 157, 204, 218

“Big Five,” 48, 134, 216

carbon dioxide and, 140, 204

and carbon isotope values, 140, 164

climate and, 106, 120, 134, 137, 140, 142, 156

Devonian, 48, 92, 102, 106

and evolutionary changes, 102, 143, 159–160, 191–193

hydrogen sulfide poisoning and, 204

K/T event, 118, 157, 167, 203

low-oxygen conditions and, 48–49, 79, 102, 142, 204

ozone layer destruction and, 143

plants, 137, 140

Triassic-Jurassic, 195–197, 199, 203, 204, 216

McElwaine, Jenny, 204

Mediterranean Sea, 232

Meganeura, 110, 114

Mesozoic Era

asteroid-induced mass extinctions, 3, 144

dinosaurs, 127, 184, 194

marine environment, 17, 189, 215

oxygen levels, 41, 176, 180

subdivisions, 41

Mesozoic Marine Revolution Hypothesis, 42–43, 214

Metabolism.

See also Energy expenditure and requirements

basal level, 145, 188–189

defined, 144

dinosaur, 151, 184–188, 189, 206

and endothermy, 144–150, 151, 188

insects, 115

temperature and, 188–191

Meteor/asteroid impacts

Alvarez Impact Hypothesis, 138, 167

Chicxulub asteroid strike, 71, 118, 218, 223

Manicouagan event, 204

and mass extinctions, 3, 134, 139–140, 143, 157, 167, 204

Methane, 140, 143, 164, 215

Micromitra, 50, 66

Millipedes, 97, 98, 113, 115

Mississippi River valley region, 17

Mississippian Period, 40–41, 97, 105, 106, 109, 114, 118, 121, 130

Mites, 97

Mixosaurus, 164

Molecular clock studies, 51, 100–101, 121, 225

Mollusks, 3, 64.

See also individual families and species

bivalve, 10, 22, 23, 27, 65, 67–75, 84–85, 159, 163, 199

body plan, 10, 67–75, 84–85

buoyancy organs, 70–71, 72–74, 84–85

evolution, 65, 67–75

extinctions, 133, 216

giant, 216

HAM model, 68

land colonization, 93, 95, 99

locomotion, 67, 72, 73, 74, 75, 85

in oxygen-poor environments, 75, 81, 199

respiratory systems, 15, 22, 67, 68–75, 85, 99

segmentation, 65, 69

shell, 67–68, 69–74, 81, 84–85

size of, 87

Monitor lizards, 128

Monoplacophorans, 59, 65, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73

Monotis, 215, 216

Mosasaurs, 190, 191, 213, 223

Moschops, 129

Morris, Simon Conway, 11, 55

Mountain uplift, 37, 38, 232, 234

N

Nautiloids, 74, 80, 84–85, 87, 92, 113, 132, 136, 144, 159, 199, 217, 218

Nautilus, xi, 69, 70–71, 72–75, 217

Nematodes, 15, 95

Nemerteans, 63

Neogastropods, 213

Neogene Period, 41

Neornischians, 202

Nesomachils, 88

Newman, S. A., 62

Nitrogen

atmospheric, 32, 116

fixation, 35

volcanic, 33

Nodosaurs, 203

Nutrient-rich runoff, 16–17

O

O’Connor, Patrick, 181, 182–183

Oceans and seas, 10.

See also Marine life;

individual bodies of water

anoxic conditions, 15–17, 32, 53, 75, 102, 106, 142, 204, 214–215, 231–234

atmosphere and, 32

Cambrian, 54–55

Carboniferous, 115

chemistry, 33, 43

low-oxygen events, 78, 214–221

Mesozoic, 17

origin, 33

oxygen content, 18, 35, 87, 115

salinity, 33, 43

thermohaline circulation, 17

tides, 55

Octopus, 70, 218

Omolska, Halszka, 184

Onycophorans, 57

Ordovician Period

animal diversification rates, 86

atmospheric gases, 79, 86–87

climate, 43

landscape and fauna, 81–85, 94

mass extinctions, 48

oxygen levels, 41, 48, 79, 80

time interval, 89

Oregon State University, 173

Ornithischians, 48, 171, 176, 183, 196, 200, 201, 202–203, 204–205

Ornithodira, 169–170

Ornithopods, 202

Osteolepis, 101

Ostracoderms, 80, 85, 86, 113

Oxidation-reduction reactions, 14, 34, 36

Oxygen

atmospheric composition over time, 31–32, 33, 35–38, 39, 41, 53, 54, 78, 129–130, 161, 180, 229–235

Berner curves, 39, 53, 98, 101, 110, 130, 132, 157, 158, 198, 222, 226

carbon cycle and, 36, 37, 79, 220–221, 229–230

content of air vs. water, 18–19

continental drift and, 232–233

energy production, 12–15

enzyme biosynthesis, 13

and evolution, 2, 6–7, 10, 28–29, 42–48, 77–78, 86–87, 104–105, 119–120, 192–193

extraction efficiency, 27–28, 62–63, 67–68, 75, 77

isotope mass balance model, 38

locomotion and, 20

measuring past levels, 37–39, 41, 180

and respiration, 18–20

sensory processing and, 20

sources, 13, 34–35

sulfur cycle and, 36–37

temperature and, 39

and thermoregulation, 148–149

Oxygen-free. See Anoxic environments

Oxygen-poor conditions, 10.

See also Cambrian Explosion;

Jurassic Period;

Permian extinctions;

Triassic Explosion

and altitudinal compression, 47, 141

and bipedalism, 167–169

and chest and lung morphology, 26–27

dinosaur adaptations, x–xi, 2, 151, 166–167, 180, 188–191

and diversification rates, 45, 46, 47, 86–87, 102, 109, 119

and endothermy, 146–150

greatest crash, 137–138

mammals, 2

and marine life, 17, 190–191, 214–221

and mass extinctions, 48–49, 79

reproductive strategy, 122–123

respiratory efficiency in, 26, 75, 77, 146–150, 153–154, 160–161

and speciation rates, 45, 46, 78–79, 102–103, 119

temperature and, 48

and tetrapod fossils, 101

Oxygen-rich conditions.

See also Carboniferous-Early Permian Period;

Permian extinctions;

Silurian-Devonian interval

and adaptive radiation, 97, 103, 105–106, 129

cause of, 116–117

and diversification rates, 119, 127–128

and extinctions, 216

and gigantism, 91–92, 111–112, 216

and habitat, 193

highest in Earth’s history, 112, 114

and hydroxyl radicals, 119

and land colonization, 93–99, 101

mammals, 2

and marine invertebrates, 120

plant life, 118–119

reproductive strategies, 122–123

and speciation rates, 45–46, 119–120

Ozone layer, 35, 143

P

Pachycephalans, 202

Padian, Kevin, 185, 207

Paleomap Project, 231

Paleothyris, 121

Paleozoic Era.

See also individual periods

land colonization, 3

marine diversification, 3, 44, 144

oxygen levels, 26, 41, 131

subdivisions, 40–41

Pangea, 116–117, 129, 133, 138, 154, 230–231, 233, 234

Pareiosaurs, 127

Paul, Gregory S., 173–174, 176, 177, 178, 180, 188

Peck, Lloyd, 115

Pelycosaurs, 127, 128, 129

Pennatulaceans, 64

Pennsylvania State University, 141

Pennsylvanian Period, 40–41, 97, 99, 106, 109, 114, 118, 120, 121, 126, 127, 128–129

Perdepes, 104

Permian extinctions

carbon dioxide levels and, 48, 134, 137, 138, 140, 143, 144

cause of, 133, 138–144

climate and, 43, 134, 135–136, 137, 140–141, 142, 143, 144, 146–147, 156

combination scenario, 142–143

damage estimates, 133

dinosaurs, 151–153, 211

and endothermy, 144–153

evolutionary effects, 143–150

fungal and algal fossils, 156

habitable land area, 141, 154–155

hydrogen sulfide hypothesis, 134, 136, 141–142, 144, 155

importance of, 143–144

insects, 135

marine life, 3, 92, 133, 136–137, 143–144

meteor impact hypothesis, 134, 139–140

methane hypotheses, 140, 143

oxygen levels, 26, 41, 48, 98, 114, 132, 134, 135–136, 137–138, 140, 141, 144, 146, 153–154

ozone layer destruction hypothesis, 143

Permian-Triassic boundary event, 138–142, 144, 156

plant life and, 135, 137, 138, 155–156

recovery interval, 133, 157, 164–165

and reproductive strategy, 144

results of, 144, 153, 156–157

Siberian trap hypothesis, 140–141, 233

terrestrial life, 135, 141, 144

therapsid respiratory adaptations, 26–27, 153–154

time interval, 98

volcanic eruptions, 134

pH, 15, 42

Phanerozoic, subdivisions of, 40–41

Phillips, John, 144

Phosphorus, 14

Photosynthesis, 34–35, 36, 53, 93, 94, 117

C-4 pathway, 137

Phyla.

See also Body plans of animals origins of, 10

Phytoplankton, 143

Phytosaurs, 151, 163, 195, 197

Pikaia, 50, 75

Pisanosaurus, 201

Placoderms, 90–91, 113

Placodonts, 164, 190

Plankton, 17, 83, 86, 117, 213

calcareous, 219–221

Plants

angiosperms, 194, 205

C-4 photosynthesis, 137

Cambrian, 53–54

carbon dioxide levels and, 44, 94, 137

Carboniferous, 112–113, 117, 118–119

chloroplasts, 35

Cretaceous, 194, 205, 223

cuticle, 93–94

decomposition, 117, 233

fire resistance traits, 118

floral revolution, 194, 205

fossil record, 97

and insect diversification, 194

land colonization and evolution, 38, 42, 89, 90, 93–94

in oxygen-rich environments, 118–119

Permian extinctions, 137, 138, 140, 155–156

photorespiration, 119

reproduction, 94

root systems, 94, 119

stems and trunks, 94

stomata, 94

temperature sensitivity, 155

Plate tectonics, 37, 53, 220, 230–231, 233–234

Plateosaurus, 202

Platypus, 224–225

Pleistocene, climate, 43

Plesiosaurs, 190, 191, 199, 200, 213

Pojeta, John, 68

Polychaetes, 15

Polyplacophores, 69, 70

Poreda, Robert, 139

Powell, Matthew, 120

Predation and predators, 10, 22, 42, 43, 92, 111, 123, 128, 135, 147, 159, 165, 169, 170

Priapulans, 15

Priapulids, 56

Prosauropods, 162, 202

Proterosuchus, 135, 153, 165, 177

Pterodactyls, 200, 207

Pterosaurs, 169, 200

Pyrite, 34, 36–37, 38, 116, 230

Q

Quaternary Period, 41

R

Radiometric age dating, 5, 39

Raff, Rudy, 10, 11

Rauisuchians, 152

Raup, David, 48

Reef ecosystems, 3, 81, 83–84, 89, 114, 137, 160, 163, 199

Rees, Peter McAllister, 156

Reproductive strategies, 120

amniotic eggs, 120–124, 208–212, 213, 224

calcareous eggs, 208, 209–210, 211, 212

dinosaurs, 207–213

high altitudes and, 122

and land colonization, 120–124

live births, 122, 123, 144, 208, 209, 211, 212, 213, 224–225, 226–227

marsupial, 224–225

oxygen levels and, 207–213, 235

parchment egg, 210, 211, 212, 213

placental, 224, 226–227

temperature and, 210, 212

Reptiles

amniotic eggs, 120–124, 208, 210, 211

Carboniferous, 120–131

defined, 121

evolution, 121, 127–128

gigantism, 127

heart, 125

Jurassic, 199

live births, 122, 123, 144, 211

locomotion, 124–125, 135

mammal-like, see Therapsids nasal structure, 147, 149, 153–154

Permian extinction, 135, 141, 144

respiratory systems, 124–125, 135, 147, 153–154, 164, 171, 172, 173, 177

return to sea, 160, 164

size, 130–131

thermoregulation, 125–130, 149–150, 151

Respiration (aerobic) and respiratory systems.

See also Gills;

Lung systems;

individual system components

absorption surface, 262

air breathers, 18–19, 21, 262–263

blood pigments, 13, 14–15, 263

as body plan driver, 2, 6–7, 10–11, 19, 20, 26, 27–28, 42–48, 111, 124–125

breathing rate, 26–27

Cambrian animals, 60–67

and carbon dioxide, 14, 15, 18, 19, 23, 24, 62

Carrier’s Constraint, 124, 166, 168

coral reefs as part of, 83–84

countercurrent, 173

cuirassal breathing, 186

defensive systems, 22, 71

defined, 25

diving adaptation, 152

efficiency of, ix–x, 27–28, 62–63, 75, 115, 147, 148, 173, 174, 235

endothermy and, 146, 147, 150

and energy metabolism, 12–15

as evolutionary pathway, 25–26, 60, 61, 67–75, 77

as feeding organs, 27, 66, 70, 166

gas exchange, 25

land colonization and, 89, 90, 96–97, 105, 124–125

locomotion and, 20, 22, 24, 61, 65, 71, 74, 75, 85, 124–125, 135, 166, 168–169, 172

oxygen environment and, 18–20, 62–63, 95, 130, 153–154, 160–161, 174

pH and, 15

plants, 12, 14

protective structures as, 67–68

sensory processing system and, 20

size and shape of animals and, 19–20, 21, 26, 87, 111–112, 115

skin, 103

surface area, 263

temperature and, 19

tracheal system, 115

transition from gill to lung, 100, 103, 104–105

water-breathers, 18–19, 20, 21, 262–263

and water loss, 146, 147

Respiration (anaerobic) and respiratory systems, 12, 14

Retallack, Greg, 139, 140, 141

Rhipidistians, 100

Rhynchosaurs, 162

Romer, Alfred, 103, 104

Romer’s Gap, 103, 104–108, 109

Ruben, John, 148, 173, 175, 178–179, 180, 181, 182, 185, 187, 197, 200, 206, 211, 212

Rugose corals, 83, 144

Runnegar, Bruce, 68

S

Salamanders, 22, 23, 125, 166

Salinity of water, 18

Saperion, 57

Saurians, 2

Saurischians, 47, 48, 152, 168, 170–171, 174, 176, 178, 180, 181, 183, 185, 195–197, 199, 200, 201–202, 204–205, 206, 207, 211

Sauropods, 175, 186, 201, 202, 203, 205, 211

Scaphopods, 68

Scipionyx, 180

Scleractinian corals, 160, 163, 199

Scleromochlus, 169

Scorpions, 91, 95, 96, 97–98, 112, 113, 115, 125

Scotese, C., 231

Sea anemones, 63

Sea cucumbers, 64

Sea level change, 38, 232

Sea lilies, 113–114

Sea Pens, 64

Sea scorpions, 57

Sea squirts, 76

Sea urchins, 64, 65

Sedimentary record

dating, 104

Greenland, 143

red beds, 34

stratified, 3

Segmentation, 91

functions of, 12, 57, 58–63

insects, 59

and locomotion, 12, 61, 62

as repeat gill system, 60–63, 65, 69, 92

Seismosaurus, 208

Sepkoski, Jack, 44, 48

Sereno, Paul, 192, 203, 204

Seymour, Roger, 150

Shonisaurus, 164

Siberian traps, 140–141, 233

Sidor, Christian, 131, 154

Silurian-Devonian interval

amphibians, 100–104

arthropods, 91, 93, 95–96, 98, 99

insects, 90, 91, 95, 97, 98

land colonization, 87, 90, 92–108

landscape, flora, and fauna, 88, 89, 90–92

mass extinctions, 91, 92

oxygen levels, 87, 88, 89–90, 91, 98, 109

respiratory systems of land animals, 89–90

Romer’s Gap, 104–108, 109

time interval, 89, 90

Silverfish, 90

Sinosauropteryx, 180

Sipunculans, 15

Skeletons, oxygen and, 13

Smith, Roger, 154, 165

Snakes, 172, 188

Spiders, 95, 96, 97, 101, 112, 113

Spiny nautiloid, 132, 136

Sponges, 10, 12, 56, 58, 64, 67, 82, 83, 86, 95, 114

Springtails, 90, 97

Squid, 70, 72, 75, 218

Stanley, Steve, 120, 227

Starfish, 64

State University of New York, 139

Staurikosaurus, 163, 168

Stegosaurs, 202, 203

Sterols, 13

Stromatolites, 136–137

Stromotoporoids, 83

Sulfur, elemental, 33, 36

Sulfur cycle, 36–37

Sulfur dioxide, 37

Sulfur-metabolizing bacteria, 134, 136, 141–142

Sunlight. See Insolation changes

Synapsids, 125, 126, 130, 146, 211

T

Tabulate corals, 83, 144, 163

Temperatures, ambient, 10

carbon dioxide and, 189;

see also Greenhouse effect

and egg laying strategy, 210

and evolution, 42, 43, 44–45

and metabolic rate, 188–191

modeling over time, 39

and oxygen content, 18, 35, 39, 230

and stress of low oxygen, 48

and thermoregulation, 125, 146–147, 149

Tertiary Period, 41

mammalian diversification, 3

Tetanurans, 202

Thecodonts, 168, 195, 196, 197

Therapsids, 26, 125, 128–129, 130, 131, 144, 147, 148, 151, 153, 160, 165, 195, 196, 197, 212, 224

Thermoregulation.

See also Ectothermy;

Endothermy

body covering and, 126

insects, 188

large animals, 125, 148

oxygen levels and, 148–149

reptiles, 125–130

Therocephalians, 130, 147

Theropods, 177, 181

Thrinaxodon (premammal), 1

Thyreaphorans, 202

Tiktaalik, 88, 106

Triassic Explosion

adaptive radiations, 157

bipedal animals, 162–171

carbon dioxide levels, 138, 184, 186, 204

cause, 180

climate and, 43, 184, 186

dinosaurs, 3, 8, 47, 161, 162–163, 165–171, 177–180, 184–188, 191–194, 196, 201–202, 204, 209, 224

disparity in body plans, 159–163, 165

diversity of tetrapods, 196

importance, 161

mammals, 1, 3, 8, 130, 165, 196, 224

marine life, 159–160, 163–164, 188–191, 214, 215

mass extinctions, 48, 161, 164, 194, 195–197, 203, 204, 216

oxygen levels and, 47, 48, 157, 158, 159, 160, 162, 180, 184, 186, 191–193, 194, 195, 204, 215

plant life, 161

rebound, 164–165

respiratory adaptations, 165

size of animals, 131

terrestrial life, 161–162

time interval, 41, 159, 164

Trilobites, xi

body plan, 50, 51, 59–62

extinctions, 78, 81, 84, 86, 92, 133, 137, 144, 161

first appearance, 52

redlichiacean, 57

respiratory system, 59, 60, 61–63, 92

segmentation, 59, 60, 92

Tritylodon, 131, 197

Troodontids, 207

Tunicates, 76–77, 78

Turtles, 126, 127, 208, 210, 212

Tyrannosaurids, 206

Tyrannosaurus rex, 167, 170, 202, 207

U

Ultraviolet radiation, 10, 35, 68, 143

University of California, 42

at Berkeley, 153, 176, 207

at Irvine, 188

at Santa Barbara, 139, 225

University of Chicago, 156, 204

University of Oregon, 139

University of Washington, 131, 141

Uranium

oxides, 34

sedimentary minerals, 37–38

Urochordata, 76–77

V

Valentine, James, 10, 60, 61

VandenBrooks, John, 123, 235

Varanids, 124

Ventastega, 102

Vermeij, Gary, 42–43

Vertebrates, 3

body plan, 10, 76

evolution of, 46–47, 75–78, 100–104

first, 57–58

gigantism, 113, 130

gill structures, 22

heart, 25

high-oxygen assemblage, 46–47

land colonization, 93, 95, 99, 100–104, 107

low-oxygen assemblage, 47

lung systems, 27

respiratory pigments, 15

Vetulicola, 57

Vicuna, 27

Volcanoes

continental drift and, 232, 234

degassing, 38, 220, 229

gas composition, 33, 35, 37, 142

W

Water vapor, 32, 33

Watson, Andrew, 39

Wedel, Matt, 176, 178

Weischampel, David, 184

Wells, Martin, 217

Williford, Ken, 195

Wilson, E. O., 155

Wilson, J. Tuzo, 233–234

Wilson Cycle, 233–234

Wolcott, Charles, 2–3, 56

Wray, Charles, 52

Y

Yale University, 38, 119, 123

Z

Zelenitsky, Darla, 211