CHAPTER 2
Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

State DOTs are regulated permittees under the CWAʼs NPDES, which establishes federal requirements for controlling point source pollution from construction, industrial, and municipal activities. As stormwater quality remains a growing concern, regulatory demands have become more stringent. Permittees must now ensure that qualified stormwater personnel oversee their respective stormwater management and pollution prevention plans. Recognized qualifications are most typically earned through a combination of experience, education, and training. To become qualified, stormwater personnel often must complete a permit-recognized course and pass an exam.

In response to the ever-evolving NPDES permit and training requirements, the availability of stormwater training programs and associated certifications have significantly expanded in recent years. Most states have been authorized to issue their own NPDES permits, resulting in variations in program language and training requirements. Consequently, state- and agency-specific training may be necessary to meet permit-specific mandates, which further varies training programs.

This literature review is intended to examine training requirements for state DOT and affiliated personnel according to the federal regulations, present collaborations between state DOTs and external entities to qualify personnel, and provide background on program administration, documentation and evaluation methods, and education and outreach strategies that have been attempted or proposed. The literature review concludes with a discussion on the challenges and innovations shaping stormwater training in the rapidly changing regulatory environment.

2.1.1 Background on NPDES and State DOT Obligations

The NPDES was established in 1972 under the CWA, and it provides the permitting structure for point source discharge into receiving waters under specific conditions. The CWA and subsequently the NPDES program is overseen by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which has the authority to develop and implement federal stormwater regulations; however, the EPA authorizes most states to oversee their own programs. All U.S. states except for Massachusetts, New Mexico, New Hampshire, and the District of Columbia oversee all or part of their NPDES programs. Before state authorization, the EPA assesses whether the state permits meet the applicable requirements of the CWA. At a minimum, state programs must address the federal requirements but may be more stringent. Some examples of where state programs may be more stringent includes stormwater training and qualified personnel requirements.

NPDES permits are operationally specific and include sectors such as confined animal feeding operations, aquaculture, municipal wastewater, industrial wastewater, pesticide applications, and

stormwater. NPDES stormwater permits are further segmented into discharges from (1) construction, (2) industrial, and (3) municipal activities (USEPA 2016). In 1999 nontraditional municipal separate storm sewer systems (MS4s) operators were required to obtain NPDES permits under the Phase II rule, including state DOTs, if they had not been permitted under previous rules. Transportation agencies have activities covered under each of the stormwater permits; however, some states have received coverage under an individual transportation separate storm sewer system (TS4) permit. In some cases, states call this the TS4 permit (USEPA 2025b). MS4 Permit Compendium Part 4 addresses the Transportation Stormwater Permit, which provides excerpted language that can be used or tailored for transportation permits. The 2018 compendium provides examples and excerpts from other permits and includes language related to education and training for contractors (USEPA 2018).

Permitted MS4 operators, including state DOTs, are required to have a stormwater management plan (SWMP) that covers the six minimum control measures (MCMs). All MS4 staff who are responsible for implementing the SWMP must receive training related to the MCMs for which they are responsible (Rieck et al. 2022). The MCMs consist of the following:

1. Public education and outreach – educating constituents about impacts of stormwater runoff and watershed management. Examples include running informational radio ads or sponsoring billboards related to stormwater topics.
2. Public involvement – including stakeholders in stormwater management decisions. Examples include holding focus groups to discuss stormwater control measure implementation or hosting public comment periods.
3. Illicit discharge detection and elimination (IDDE) – identifying polluted discharge sites through monitoring and mitigation. Examples include conducting dry-weather inspections of discharge points.
4. Construction – obtaining coverage under a construction general permit (CGP) and developing a stormwater pollution prevention plan (SWPPP) that encapsulates an erosion and sediment control plan for disturbed areas. Examples include designing, installing, and maintaining erosion and sediment control practices (e.g., sediment barriers and detention practices) to prevent erosion and minimize sediment-laden discharge.
5. Post-construction – designing, installing, and maintaining permanent stormwater control measures to provide water treatment through sedimentation, filtration, or sorption. Examples include adding ordinances that minimize differences between pre- and post-construction hydrology, encouraging the implementation of low-impact development features (e.g., bioretention areas, permeable pavements), and outlining operations and maintenance inspections of all stormwater control features (e.g., retention ponds), and such.
6. Pollution prevention and good housekeeping – preventing against the discharge of polluted runoff by managing storage and handling of materials. Examples include providing designated areas for concrete washout, deicing salt, and chemical storage; hazardous waste disposal; and street sweeping (Rieck et al. 2022).

2.1.2 Importance of Training

Stormwater training plays a critical role to ensure compliance with the NPDES. NPDES permitting language and requirements are complex, subject to permittee interpretation, and frequent updates and adjustments. The federal permits are generally issued on a 5-year cycle. Although most states are authorized to administer their own programs, they must align with federal requirements. Still, differences in language interpretation and expectations influence state- and agency-specific regulations (Whitman et al. 2023). One example of this is the difference in training requirements. Whether stormwater work is conducted in-house or through contract arrangements, it is important that all personnel have had the appropriate training (Schneemann 2021).

The NPDES permits emphasize that effective stormwater management is dependent on a trained and qualified stormwater team. Venner (2003) underscores that performance evaluations for state DOTs are the most effective when aligned with state DOT strategic goals and supported by training and guidance. Program alignment and training needs were further highlighted in the NCHRP Domestic Scan Program (Taylor and Cazenas 2011). A 2005 report on the South Dakota DOT Water Quality Enhancement Program for Construction concludes that the “most cost-effective solution to erosion and sediment control management on South Dakota DOT projects and to minimize misunderstandings and institutionalize a statewide uniformity of practice, basic training is needed.” The study synthesizes training needs on the basis of interviews and review of specification and guidance documents. The training framework included regulations, types and causes of erosion, erosion control, sediment control, SWPPP and documentation, construction site management, and permanent controls. The report recommends that this framework be formalized through a certification program (Landphair et al. 2005). The proposed framework is similar to what is required under the 2022 CGP and addressed in the EPA training. The report is one of the first documents calling for temporary erosion and sediment control design to be based on quantitative methods or models (Landphair et al. 2005).

In 2009 NPDES compliance was a focus area in the first phase of the NCHRP U.S. Domestic Scan Program (Taylor and Cazenas 2011). The Domestic Scan Program was developed to facilitate information sharing and technology exchange among the states and transportation agencies. The NPDES-focused scan included stormwater planning during project delivery, NPDES compliance, and reducing delays associated with noncompliance, and reviewed six programs (New York, District of Columbia, Maryland, North Carolina, Texas, and Florida). One of the merits mentioned includes North Carolina DOTʼs public education for illegal dumping, but overall education was considered a need. Stormwater education for regulators, state DOT personnel, and the general public was considered a fundamental attribute that yielded a successful relationship between state DOT and regulators (Taylor and Cazenas 2011).

A 2018 survey of Tennessee DOT revealed that there is still a need for better contractor training for the installation and maintenance of temporary stormwater control measures (Schwartz and Hathaway 2018). Fagan (2020) reinforces the need to align expectations among regulators, state DOTs, and contractors. Similarly, Schneemann (2021) emphasizes that declining infrastructure sufficiency and performance remains a fundamental challenge. The study focused on green infrastructure stormwater control measures but further explored the lack of understanding between stormwater program managers and maintenance crews on training requirements. Standardized language and training could be key strategies to achieve the alignment between stakeholders, improve compliance, and environmental stewardship (Schneemann 2021). As regulatory frameworks continue to evolve, comprehensive, adaptable, and accessible stormwater training will continue to be paramount to the success of NPDES programs.

2.2 Overview of NPDES Stormwater Permit Training Requirements

All state DOT staff who are responsible for implementing a SWMP must receive training; however, some portions of training are more prescriptive than others. In particular, the 2022 CGP is explicit about the type of training required for construction stormwater. The CGP was last updated in 2022 with training requirements (Taylor and Cazenas 2011; USEPA 2025a). Part 4 of the 2022 CGP requires that stormwater inspectors on construction sites be trained on best inspection practice and appropriate documentation. In addition to designers being qualified and identified in the SWPPP, section 6.3 of the 2022 CGP requires that inspectors be qualified and explicitly identified as part of the stormwater team (USEPA 2025a).

The Transportation Stormwater Permit Compendium by the EPA outlines language from the MS4 permit that is pertinent to state DOTs, including training (USEPA 2018). Training occurs under Part 4 Public Education at least annually to educate contractors and employees conducting activities that affect stormwater. Employees involved in project design, construction, inspectors, and maintenance crews must be trained. Training topics must encapsulate all the MCMs for which the state DOT staff are responsible. “Qualified” or “certified” personnel occur twice in the permit—related to construction stormwater and good housekeeping and pollution prevention. Facility-specific training is required if pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, or other chemicals are held or used. Applications of these chemicals are required to be applied under a certified applicator (USEPA 2018).

2.2.1 General Training Provisions for Construction Permits

Throughout the MS4 and CGP, there is an emphasis on qualified stormwater personnel during construction activities (USEPA 2022, 2025a). At a minimum, the CGP and its state versions require qualified SWPPP designers and stormwater inspectors; however, tailored training opportunities and continued education exist. Many organizations will offer presentations, workshops, and conferences related to stormwater topics that result in professional development hours (PDHs). These opportunities are not directly required for compliance with stormwater permits, but they are often required to keep current or renew licensures like the Professional Engineer (PE) License or Certified Professional in Erosion and Sediment Control Certifications. These licenses or certifications are often the qualification used by SWPPP designers.

The CGP has two acceptable methods to qualify inspectors: (1) complete an EPA training course and successfully pass a final assessment or (2) hold a valid construction inspection or license from a program meeting minimum requirements (USEPA 2022). The EPAʼs online training course has no cost; however, external certifications and licenses exist and often have associated costs (USEPA 2022). External programs must include the principles and practices of erosion and sediment control and pollution prevention at construction sites, installation and maintenance of erosion and sediment control and additional pollution prevention practices, and inspection performance, including reporting and documentation. If one of the topics is not adequately covered by the external program, the EPA allows supplementing with its course modules (USEPA 2022). The EPA course is segmented into five modules: (1) general overview and introduction as to why stormwater discharges from construction sites are regulated, (2) CGP requirements, (3) erosion and sediment control practice installation and maintenance, (4) pollution prevention controls, and (5) conducting site inspections. The final exam consists of 40 questions from across the modules and requires an 80% or better to receive the certificate (USEPA 2022).

2.2.2 Updating and Revising Materials

Many stormwater training delivery methods have remained the same, but NPDES permit and training requirements have evolved. Many state DOTs revise their training requirements and curricula in response to updates in NPDES permits. For example, the Indiana DOT overhauled its Construction Stormwater Training in 2022 following the release of the updated CGP (Bowman and Furst 2022). Previously, the training consisted of online modules, a full-day in-person session, and a final exam. The updated program introduced a more comprehensive structure that allows stormwater personnel to complete certification training equivalent to 8 PDHs, valid for 2 years.

The revised Indiana DOT training includes 18 self-paced modules, 40 knowledge check questions, and a 75-question open-note final exam. The curriculum was designed with different learning styles in mind, incorporating more than 1,000 images, interactive activities, real-life examples, and a building-block approach to learning. Key features include clearly defined learning

objectives, visually engaging content, and practical applications to enhance retention and field relevance (Bowman and Furst 2022).

There is also recognition that classroom learning does not always translate into field applicability. Schwartz and Hathaway (2018) and Li et al. (2013) have challenged the notion that classroom learning is enough and suggested that hands-on learning may enforce topics covered in training. Texas DOT, which is highlighted in the case examples, requires that students attend a field inspection to complete training requirements. However, this takes additional time and commitment to training and exceeds the minimum expectations set under the NPDES permits.

Recertification is now commonly required, and some states, such as Tennessee, have implemented multilevel certification systems. Private organizations like Ecopliant and EnviroCert International have introduced In-Training (IT) designations to support professional development. As regulations and environmental conditions continue to change, it is essential to regularly update training materials and ensure that education extends beyond elective PDHs to include formal certification programs.

2.2.3 Addressing Variability in Permit Language Across States Through Training

Since EPA does authorize states to enforce its NPDES program, permit language can vary. The state permit language must meet the minimum requirements of the federal NPDES permits but may be more stringent. For example, in Indiana, the updated MS4 General Permit requires that all MS4 staff responsible for the SWMP receive 12 hours of training annually with at least 8 hours being directly tied to the MCM for which they are responsible (Purdue University 2024).

In many states, there are designated training programs developed and delivered that are specific to their NPDES permit language, especially in construction stormwater management. For example, Floridaʼs Department of Environmental Protection provides the Florida Stormwater, Erosion, and Sedimentation Control Inspector Program. The Texas DOT has a training catalog that includes many facets of stormwater, including four courses on SWPPPs. Depending on the course, they may be offered in-person, virtually, or both; however, their information page highlights that there is limited availability (Texas DOT 2025a). If classes are unavailable on a desired timeline, students are referred to the Local Technical Assistance Program (LTAP) or the National Highway Institute (NHI) courses (Texas DOT 2021). The NHI courses are not tailored to state-specific requirements, and currently stormwater education offerings are limited. Only one course is offered related to erosion and sediment control plan reading (NHI, n.d.).

Other states partner with universities to offer state-specific stormwater training. The mechanisms through which training is offered are emphasized in the following section. One mechanism, however, is through LTAPs and Tribal Technical Assistance Programs (TTAPs). LTAPS/TTAPS are either housed at universities (33 states) or within state DOTs (17 states) (NLTAPA 2025). LTAPs and TTAPs are primarily funded by the FHWA and provide training and workforce development, technical assistance, technology transfer, and resource development (NLTAPA 2025). Many LTAPs and TTAPs have in-person and online training for transportation stormwater, including MS4 permit requirements, runoff control, pollution prevention and good housekeeping, and illicit discharge detention.

2.3 Training Partnerships and Programs

As the need for stormwater training has increased, multiple stakeholders have answered the call to develop curriculum and certifications. Federal guidelines provide a foundational framework that is supported by EPA training, but other federal resources exist for transportation

stormwater education, including the AASHTO Center for Environmental Excellence and the NHI online education programs. However, as states administer their own NPDES programs, the training program partnerships are variable across jurisdictions. In many states, university partnerships have been leveraged to offer education, training, and research. The mechanisms include LTAP and TTAP programming, extension, and individual grants. Additionally, private partnerships have developed certification and licensure programs to meet the requirements of the federal NPDES and state-level programs. A 2021 report on stormwater infrastructure training and maintenance needs funded by the Illinois-Indiana Sea Grant emphasizes the wide range in formal and informal education and training opportunities. In fact, the study highlights that the “diffusion of training opportunities and use of in-house training pointed to the need to streamline credentialing” (Schneemann 2021).

This literature review does not attempt to provide an exhaustive catalog of all available training options because of the vast variety across states. Instead, this review provides examples that illustrate the variety in training approaches and collaborative efforts across state DOTs. In particular, this review highlights the private partnerships listed on the EPA resource list including CISEC Inc., EnviroCert, National Stormwater Center, and StormwaterONE (USEPA 2025c). Because of the variability across the country, it is critical that stormwater professionals consult their state training requirements before selecting and participating in a training and credentialing pathway.

2.3.1 Federal Partnerships

The FHWA hosts the NHI, which offers instructor-led training for highway industry professionals (USDOT, n.d.). The accredited training program has more than 200 web-based training courses through its online learning management system (LMS), including 134108D Plan Reading: Erosion and Sediment Control Plans (NHI, n.d.).

The AASHTO Center for Environmental Excellence hosts three stormwater technical training solutions, including Construction Stormwater, Maintenance Stormwater, and Texas DOTʼs Stormwater Environmental Requirements during Construction (AASHTO 2024). The Construction Stormwater Training course is based on the 2016 Construction Stormwater Field Guide and is intended to aid state DOTs in achieving and staying in federal, state, and local compliance. Five modules are in the course: (1) introduction to stormwater management, (2) pollution prevention, (3) sediment control, (4) erosion control, and (5) temporary drainage management. The maintenance course has three modules: (1) introduction to stormwater maintenance, (2) roadside maintenance activities, and (3) facilities management. The Center of Environmental Excellence does not have explicit language about if the training constitutes the requirements for qualification under the permit, but the courses do have associated PDHs (AASHTO 2024).

2.3.2 University Partnerships

University transportation agency–university partnerships have been historically leveraged for research and education in the transportation sectors. In 33 states, universities house the LTAP and TTAP programs. Additionally, land-grant schools may offer stormwater education through their extension programs. For example, the University of Minnesota (UMN) has an erosion and stormwater management certification program (University of Minnesota 2025). The training program started in 2002 to provide contractors and engineers information on NPDES permit compliance information. At other universities, stormwater education may be offered in conjunction with ongoing research. For example, Auburn University hosts an annual stormwater week that includes a multiday installer workshop, consisting of classroom and hands-on education, and a Field Day that showcases innovative stormwater management (Perez et al. 2019). Some of

the programs, such as the UMN certification program, result in a credential; others, like Auburn Universityʼs, provide PDHs.

Examples of universities that have a stormwater inspector course that result in certification or qualification include UMN, Utah State University (LTAP), University of Oklahomaʼs Water Survey, University of Nebraska-Lincoln (LTAP), Kansas State University, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, and North Carolina State University.

The Minnesota DOT–UMN is an example of a state DOT–university partnership for training, and it is further highlighted in the Minnesota DOT case example. Additionally, the training program is one of the only programs with available evaluation criteria in the literature. UMN provides certifications for construction installers, construction site managers, designers of construction SWPPPs, pipeliners, regulators, and maintenance crews, and is not limited to only DOT audiences. The courses rely on a variety of instructors from the university, the Minnesota DOT, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Department of Natural Resources, Board of Water and Soil Resources, soil and water conservation districts, vendors, and consultants (Chapman and Isensee 2006).

Several universities offer post-construction stormwater management training. Training modules often include stormwater control measure design, and many focus on inspection and maintenance. Inspection and maintenance of permanent control measures can be challenging because of their site-specific design and expected longevity. Erickson et al. (2018) highlights ambiguous and inconsistent nature of stormwater control measure inspections and proposes specific methods for media filtration, infiltration, ponds, and permeable pavements inspections, founded in research. Rutgers University, North Carolina State University, and the Colorado Stormwater Center through Colorado State University offer training opportunities for various stormwater control measures, resulting in certification (Colorado Stormwater Center 2025). In addition to certifications, PDHs/continuing education units (CEUs) are associated with completion of the programs.

Universities offer innovative education and training opportunities. Several laboratories across the country are dedicated to erosion and sediment control testing (Schussler et al. 2022), and many provide hands-on training opportunities. For example, Auburn Universityʼs Stormwater Research Facility (AU-SRF); the Sedimentation and Erosion Control (SEC) Laboratory at the Texas A&M Transportation Institute; North Carolina Stateʼs Erosion, Sediment and Turbidity Control open their research laboratories for hand-on training events (Li et al. 2013; Perez et al. 2019). All these programs have demonstrated strong collaboration with their state DOTs through research and education. These events offer trainees the opportunity to install, inspect, and observe how practices perform under varied conditions but may not result in a certification.

The AU-SRF has been hosting training events since 2009 as part of its mission (Perez et al. 2019). In 2013 the SEC Laboratory at the Texas A&M Transportation Institute also integrated hands-on training into its mission. The master planning report highlights how the hands-on training opportunities affect Texas A&M students, municipalities, and other practitioners. The developed training focuses on soil erosion control and low-impact development techniques to meet demand and complement the traditional lecture-based training including Texas DOTʼs Erosion and Sediment Control Course, South Dakota DOTʼs Water Quality Enhancement Program, and How to Inspect Construction Sites and How to Enforce a TPDES Program (Li et al. 2013). Hands-on training programs, like those at Texas A&M University and Auburn University, are further highlighted in the “Innovative Solutions” section of the report.

2.3.3 Private Partnerships

Private companies, like Ecopliant, EnviroCert, and StormwaterONE, offer training programs that cover the minimum topics required by the EPA, and offer licenses, certifications, or credentials

to inspectors (USEPA 2025c). This section of the literature review provides details on Ecopliant, EnviroCert, and StormwaterONE since these companies are listed on the EPAʼs resource list; however, it is possible that other providers offer similar training and credentialing programming.

Ecopliant Environmental, Inc., offers the Certified Inspector of Sediment and Erosion Control (CISEC), which is a professional certification for “individuals who have demonstrated his or her proficiency in observing, inspecting, and reporting on the implementation of sediment and erosion control reports and plans” (Ecopliant Environmental, Inc. 2025). The CISEC is oriented to construction stormwater inspections. To gain this certification, applicants must demonstrate at least 2 years of experience in stormwater, training or education in stormwater, and provide three references to vouch for their qualifications and experience. The certification requires that applicants pass an exam with at least 75%. Annually, members are required to report 12 PDHs (Ecopliant Environmental, Inc. 2025).

EnviroCert offers nine certifications oriented to the municipal, industrial, and construction permits under the NPDES. Education and experience levels are dependent on the type of certification (EnviroCert International, Inc. 2025). The nine certifications are the following:

• Certified Professional in Erosion and Sediment Control (CPESC)
• Certified Erosion, Sediment and StormWater Inspector (CESSWI)
• Certified Professional in StormWater Quality (CPSWQ)
• Certified Professional in Municipal Stormwater Management (CPMSM)
• Certified Professional in Industrial Stormwater Management (CPISM)
• Certified Professional in StormWater Inspection (CPSWI)
• Certified Professional in Water Pollution Control (CPWPC)
• National Green Infrastructure Certification Program (NGICP)
• Qualified Stormwater Manager Certificate of Training (QSM)

StormwaterONE is based in Connecticut; however, it offers online training and credentialing for construction professionals on stormwater management. Its certificates include the Qualified Compliance Inspector of Stormwater (QCIS) and the Qualified Preparer of Stormwater Pollution Prevention Plans (QPSWPPPs). Within its online LMS, it has tailored courses to the states, dependent on the applicantʼs section. For example, the Oregon course is titled CI233: CESCL, which is the Certified Erosion and Sediment Control Lead. For New Jersey, the same course is titled CI203: QCIS, which is the Qualified Inspector of Stormwater—New Jersey. Additionally, StormwaterONE has information related to individual state NPDES programs and provides a catalog of courses relevant to the state. For Oklahoma, StormwaterONE populates courses in industrial stormwater; oil and gas; MS4—which includes MCMs, even public education and outreach—in addition to the QCIS and QPSWPPP (StormwaterONE 2025).

While Ecopliant, EnviroCert, and StormwaterONE are focused on nationally recognized certifications for permit compliance, some state DOTs partner with companies to offer training oriented to their permits. For example, Alabama DOT references Erosion Pros, Home Builders Association of Alabama, and Thompson Engineering to provide qualified credentialed inspector programs that the agency recognizes. Alabama DOT provides continuing education for Qualified Credentialed Inspectors (QCIs) who are affiliated with their projects (ALDOT 2025). In other cases, state DOTs may partner with other state agencies or membership programs. For example, the Arizona Chapter of the Association of General Contractors coordinates the training for qualified instructors on Arizona DOT projects.

Given the variability of state-administered NPDES programs and evolving regulations, training programs must be adaptable and responsive to federal, state, and local requirements. The examples presented in this review highlight a range of strategies and partnerships that support the development of qualified stormwater personnel; however, this is not an exhaustive

list of available training opportunities. It is important that stormwater professionals consult their state- and agency-specific requirements to select an appropriate training and credentialing program. As the regulatory environment evolves, knowledge exchange through peer exchanges will remain critical for developing innovative and effective strategies for stormwater compliance.

2.4 Training Delivery Methods

Effective training delivery is critical to ensure that there is consistent interpretation of NPDES regulations and that there is a foundational understanding of stormwater management practices to apply in the field for environmental compliance. Venner (2003) emphasizes the importance of environmental procedure manuals as critical tools for state DOTs to standardize practice and transfer knowledge. While manuals may provide an anchor for stormwater management practices, they cannot stand alone. It is necessary to provide training to stormwater practitioners to ensure consistency in interpretation and set expectations for stormwater compliance efforts. Fagan (2020) underscores that the alignment of goals and expectations is important among state DOTs and site stormwater personnel, and clear training provides ample opportunities to do so. NCHRP Report 768: Guide to Accelerating New Technology Adoption through Directed Technology Transfer emphasizes how curriculum deployment can take shape in the transportation space. The report highlights how to effectively transfer technology and innovations developed through transportation research, which can be applied in stormwater applications (Hood et al. 2014). Formal course development and delivery remain the primary methods for disseminating stormwater training, either through (1) in-person, instructor-led training or (2) virtual learning. These programs are also variable in length and intensity—at a minimum the programs must include the EPA criteria.

2.4.1 In-Person and Instructor-Led Training

Traditional classroom-based training is still widely used for stormwater education and is typically offered in a central location, such as at a regional or district office. However, these settings vary in their technological capabilities. Some classrooms are equipped with technology, such as computers and projectors, other DOTs may still depend on booklet-based learning. The effectiveness of in-person training often depends on the instructorʼs approach, which may include lectures, slide presentations, handwritten notes, or interactive activities such as group discussions and design exercises (Hood et al. 2014).

Reports dating back to the early 2000s document the creation of NPDES stormwater compliance and best management practice manuals to anchor training courses, which served as the foundation for many training programs (Johnson and Pitt 2006; Landphair et al. 2005). Course materials include handout manuals, PowerPoint presentations, and student guides (Johnson and Pitt 2006; Landphair et al. 2005). Despite the 20 years since the publication of those reports, the in-classroom training strategies remain similar. For example, the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation Level 1 Workshop, Fundamentals of Erosion Prevention and Sediment Control for Construction Sites, still uses a presentation and handout format. Though, a 2018 survey by Schwartz and Hathaway reveals that there was a need for better installation and maintenance training. Additionally, new design training was recommended to improve erosion and sediment control plan quality and consistency, specifically adding a module oriented to roadway design erosion plan development (Schwartz and Hathaway 2018).

In-person training is often delivered through state DOT in-house programs, university partnerships, or private providers. LTAPs, TTAPs, and extension programs frequently offer regional training sessions. While these opportunities remain valuable, many organizations are transitioning to virtual formats to improve accessibility and reduce costs (Hood et al. 2014).

2.4.2 Virtual and On-Demand Learning

Online and on-demand learning has become more prevalent in stormwater management education and training. LTAPs and TTAPs have started shifting to online education offerings (Hood et al. 2014). In most cases, virtual learning takes two forms: live, instructor-led sessions via platforms like Zoom or Microsoft Teams, and prerecorded, self-paced modules. These formats often mirror the content of in-person courses but provide greater accessibility.

In fact, even the EPAʼs Construction Inspection Training Course is offered on demand. State DOT training, in many cases, is available on demand, reflecting a broader trend toward virtual stormwater training. State DOTs, such as Texas DOT, have adopted online LMS to deliver training, while still recommending in-person sessions for centralized personnel (Texas DOT 2025b). Texas DOTʼs course delivery is further detailed in the Texas DOT case example section of this report. University programs, such as those offered by UMN, also provide online training options, which is detailed in the case examples.

Virtual learning reduces logistical barriers by eliminating travel, venue, and per diem costs. It also allows participants to complete training on their own schedules, making it an attractive option for DOTs, universities, and private certification providers. For example, EnviroCert International offers on-demand review courses for its certification exams, which are administered at Prometric Testing Centers. StormwaterONE uses an online LMS (eCampus) to deliver state-specific training modules (StormwaterONE 2025). CISEC provides both live webinars and in-person sessions, though virtual offerings are more widely available (Ecopliant Environmental, Inc. 2025).

These examples illustrate how organizations are leveraging virtual platforms to expand their reach and meet the needs of a geographically dispersed audience. National organizations such as AASHTO, the NHI, and the American Public Works Association also offer online stormwater training. Additionally, virtual courses are a popular way to earn PDHs, providing further incentives for participation.

2.4.3 Documentation and Recordkeeping

Because the NPDES program requires that stormwater-related tasks be performed by certified and qualified personnel, recordkeeping is important for verification. Accurate documentation supports regulatory compliance and ensures that agencies and contractors can readily confirm the qualifications of their stormwater personnel.

Certification is typically granted only after successful completion of a training program and a final examination. Most programs require a passing score of between 70% and 80%. For example, the EPAʼs Construction Inspection Training Course mandates a minimum score of 80%; Alaskaʼs certification program has a 70% threshold. In addition to written exams, some state DOTs, such as the Texas DOT, require a hands-on or field-based component as part of the certification process as discussed in the case examples. Site tours or field demonstrations are designed to reinforce classroom instruction and ensure that participants can apply their knowledge in real-world settings.

Once certification is achieved, records are typically stored in online repositories maintained by the issuing organization. Many training and certification programs also maintain public registries of certified individuals. For example, UMNʼs Certification Program in Erosion and Stormwater Management provides searchable certification lists for six of its programs on its website (University of Minnesota 2025). Additionally, qualified individuals receive a hard hat sticker, so they are easily identified onsite (University of Minnesota 2025).

Similarly, the Oklahoma Water Survey at the University of Oklahoma maintains a registry of certified inspectors who have completed the Oklahoma Erosion and Sediment Control Inspector Certification, which aligns with the stateʼs OKR10 (Oklahoma Pollutant Discharge Elimination System CGP) permit. This registry includes expiration dates for each certification, which are updated when renewal courses are completed (University of Oklahoma Water Survey, n.d.).

EnviroCert International also offers a comprehensive public directory of certified professionals across various environmental specialties (EnviroCert International, Inc. 2025). These registries typically include information such as certification type, expiration date, and geographic location. Some platforms, such as those maintained by EnviroCert and Ecopliant, offer advanced search capabilities that allow users to look up certified personnel by name, location, or credential type. These tools enhance transparency, support workforce planning, and facilitate verification by regulatory agencies and project managers.

2.4.4 Associated Costs

The EPAʼs stormwater training for compliance with the CGP is offered free of charge (USEPA 2022), but many other training and credentialing programs carry fees associated with initial registration and recertification. These costs can vary widely depending on the provider, format, and level of certification. According to a review of national training programs conducted by the Texas A&M Transportation Institute, course fees typically range from $50 to more than $1,000, with some multiday, in-person programs exceeding $3,000 (Li et al. 2013).

Initial certification programs tend to be more expensive than renewal or recertification options. For example, the University of Oklahoma Water Survey offers a reduced rate for recertification compared to initial training. Similarly, universities like UMN and North Carolina State University offer lower-cost virtual training options, which help reduce financial barriers for participants.

The delivery format can also affect cost for the same training program. In-person classes are typically more expensive because of additional expenses such as room rentals, catering, printed materials, and instructor travel. These costs do not include per diem, lodging, or transportation for attendees, which can further increase the total investment for state DOT. In contrast, virtual and on-demand training eliminates many of these logistical expenses, making it a more affordable and accessible option for many state DOT personnel (Hood et al. 2014).

The SEC Laboratory report also notes that while hands-on training adds value through experiential learning, it often requires additional infrastructure and materials, which can increase the cost of delivery. However, the report suggests that revenue from these courses can be reinvested to sustain and expand training programs over time (Li et al. 2013).

Despite these cost-saving opportunities, Schneemann (2021) emphasizes that many training programs still require investment in post-secondary education or professional industry affiliation, which can be a barrier for entry-level stormwater professionals. Many credentialing programs require a combination of formal education and field experience, further increasing the time and financial commitment.

Venner (2003), Landphair et al. (2005), and Fagan (2020), among others, have emphasized that communication, education, and training are among the most cost-effective best management practices (BMPs), but state DOTs are still left to determine the appropriate level of investment in stormwater training. In this publication, Chapter 3: State of the Practice addresses questions related to both the time and financial resources required to develop and maintain effective training programs.

2.5 Program Evaluation

Stormwater training programs have become more prevalent in response to regulatory requirements; however, it remains challenging to determine whether they lead to improved environmental compliance. Given the classroom-based or virtual nature of most training, it is often unclear whether the knowledge gained can be effectively applied in the field to enhance stormwater management. Common evaluation methods, such as pre- and post-tests or participant surveys, provide some insight but have limitations. To ensure the best outcomes, training programs should be regularly revised and updated. Ultimately, the goal of these programs is to foster better environmental stewardship and ensure regulatory compliance, but it is difficult to assess with current training methods.

2.5.1 Feedback and Training Effectiveness

Evaluating the effectiveness of stormwater training can be challenging and is primarily approached in two ways: pre- and post-course testing to assess knowledge gained from the training, and participant surveys to gather feedback on perceived learning. However, both methods have limitations. Surveys primarily capture participant perceptions, and tests may reflect textbook knowledge without necessarily translating to practical, field-based application, and environmental compliance. As a result, it remains difficult to determine whether these evaluation methods directly correlate with improved environmental compliance.

Many state DOTs report using participant feedback to refine training programs, but the literature on this topic is limited. A 2006 report on Alabamaʼs stormwater training program, developed through its transportation center, documents the use of course evaluations where participants rated their satisfaction with various aspects of the training, including presenter quality, presentation clarity, and the usefulness of information (Johnson and Pitt 2006). This remains a primary measure of stormwater training experiences.

Chapman and Isensee (2006) conducted a comprehensive evaluation using surveys, pre- and post-test data, and environmental compliance metrics. They emphasize that classroom training allows for structured feedback and testing, but true effectiveness may be better measured through reductions in violations or corrective actions, as originally proposed by Venner (2003). However, Chapman and Isensee (2006) applied a multi-method evaluation approach to assess the first 3 years of UMNʼs Erosion and Stormwater Certification Program. During that period, more than 4,000 individuals participated in the program. The program required participants to complete anonymous surveys rating instructors, materials, facilities, and overall class usefulness on a 1–5 scale, achieving a 60–70% response rate. Pre- and post-tests revealed a 5.7% knowledge increase for the SWPPP Design course and a 32% increase for the Inspector Installer course. Notably, the program also reported a reduction in corrective actions and violations following training implementation.

As the program has grown, it now offers certifications in areas such as construction installation, site management, SWPPP design, pipeline construction, regulatory enforcement, and stormwater system maintenance. It is estimated that it has now issued more than 53,000 certifications, sustaining 3,000–3,500 attendees in a year (University of Minnesota 2025).

In Alabama, the AU-SRF offers a combination of classroom instruction, demonstration-based learning, and hands-on training, which is primarily attended by state DOT personnel from across the southeastern United States. Perez et al. (2019) reported that over a 9-year period, the program had trained 764 participants. Surveys collected from attendees indicate a perceived knowledge increase of 82% following a 1.5-day classroom and hands-on installer training, and a 36% increase after a field-day demonstration. These results highlight the effectiveness of

immersive, experiential learning formats. The training program continues to evolve. In 2024, AU-SRF hosted 30 participants from the Rural Alabama Innovative Stormwater Education Program. Participants reported an increase in self-assessed knowledge from 2.5 (out of 5.0) to 3.9 after completing a blended training format that included classroom and hands-on components.

Although they are more difficult to quantify, participant testimonials offer valuable insights into training effectiveness. Ongoing research and program development at AU-SRF continue to enhance the quality of instructional content and demonstration areas, aligning with the facilityʼs mission to advance stormwater management practices. According to Perez et al. (2019), the Alabama DOT has adopted a forward-thinking approach, stating that it must “go beyond mere regulatory compliance to realize its environmental vision.” The collaboration between Alabama DOT and AU-SRF has resulted in “effective and economical means of protecting Alabama waters,” reinforcing the importance of practical, field-based training in achieving long-term environmental outcomes.

2.5.2 Measuring Impact on Compliance and Behavior

Measuring the impact of stormwater training requirements on environmental compliance and behavior is complex, and literature is not readily available. Some significant movements are occurring. For example, Schussler et al. (2022) highlights that stormwater management, particularly during construction, was often based on general rules and was not performance backed. Since the 2000s, research facilities at Penn State, Texas A&M, North Carolina State, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Auburn University, and now a growing list of others, have been working toward developing performance-based design (Schussler et al. 2022).

The lack of data on training impacts on environmental compliance could be because of a regulatory landscape that is evolving at the federal and state levels. Even so, it significantly varies in structure and intensity from state to state. While awareness of stormwater issues has grown, resulting in more research, education, and policy, stormwater is regularly referred to as a pollutant source that is getting worse. As development pressures increase and climate patterns shift, our waterways continue to face mounting impairment. In this context, it is more important than ever to evaluate whether training programs are effectively translating into improved practices on the ground. Although knowledge gains and participant feedback offer some insight, there is a need to assess long-term behavioral change and environmental outcomes. This data will help tailor training programs in the future.

2.6 Public Education and Outreach, and Public Involvement (MCM 1 and 2)

The MCMs under the MS4 permit include two components focused on public engagement: (1) public education and outreach and (2) public involvement. These outreach programs aim to inform and engage the public on transportation-related stormwater issues, promote environmental stewardship, and encourage accountability among community members. However, outreach is a broad term that encompasses a wide range of activities, including signage, public announcements, participation in community events, and other jurisdiction-specific opportunities. To be most effective, outreach efforts should be tailored to specific audiences (Macdonald 2025).

For example, outreach targeting school-aged children may involve hands-on learning tools like tabletop rainfall simulators to teach basic concepts of pollution, erosion, and soil conservation (Macdonald 2025). Adults, on the other hand, may be reached through billboards encouraging pet waste pickup or radio ads promoting hazardous waste disposal events. These contextual,

audience-specific approaches promote public engagement, accountability for watershed stewardship, and support long-term stormwater compliance.

Stormwater education can begin as early as elementary school. Macdonald (2025) highlighted the use of tabletop rainfall simulators to help students and teachers understand how different media affect infiltration, flooding, erosion, and water retention. Indiana DOT has engaged in educational outreach by partnering with local high schools to train teachers in civil and construction highway topics. This initiative enables students to graduate with construction certifications, including a focus on stormwater management (Bowman and Furst 2022).

At the post-secondary level, there have been increasing calls to integrate stormwater management into undergraduate civil engineering curriculum. Navickis-Brasch et al. (2014) proposes partnerships between engineering programs and regulated MS4s to provide students with real-world project experience and exposure to NPDES permitting. These collaborations can include monitoring stormwater BMPs and designing stormwater infrastructure. Navickis-Brasch et al. (2014) further emphasizes university-industry collaborations through community-based projects. One case study involved a partnership between Spokane County, WA, and Gonzaga Universityʼs senior capstone course, where students designed, constructed, and monitored post-construction BMPs. These projects supported ABET accreditation goals and provided valuable deliverables for MS4s, such as documentation aligned with the six MCMs.

Macdonald (2025) reports that nearly 40% of stormwater professionals in Alabamaʼs Black Belt region engaged with their communities through public meetings, followed by 24% through training sessions. Communication barriers and funding limitations are identified as major challenges to outreach and technology transfer among the group. Macdonald underscores that community engagement is critical to effective technology transfer, as it helps identify local issues, knowledge gaps, and preferred learning styles. For instance, community meetings in Alabama revealed that litter was a widespread concern. In response, a brochure was developed to contextualize litter as a stormwater and environmental issue (Macdonald 2025).

The Oklahoma DOT participates in the Central Oklahoma Stormwater Alliance (COSWA), which conducts regular public outreach activities such as rain garden sales, billboards, radio ads, and live demonstrations at the annual Home and Garden Show. COSWA also maintains a public website with resources including permit language, training videos, and more (COSWA, n.d.). This model mirrors similar partnerships, such as those described in the Vermont DOT case example.

Schneemann (2021) highlights the broader benefits of green infrastructure, noting its potential to support economic development, create jobs, and generate tax revenue in addition to meeting environmental compliance goals. The report recommends delivering training in partnership with national certification programs and collaborating with workforce development organizations and university extension services.

Public education and outreach requirements in the NPDES permit remain fairly broad, which allows the permittee to tailor their program to watershed needs. In some cases, state DOTs partner with other MS4 permittees to offer a more robust program. Schneemann (2021), Navickis-Brasch et al. (2014), and Bowman and Furst (2022) propose interesting community-engaged approaches that will benefit the immediate community or future workforce, which will certainly need stormwater-educated personnel.

2.7 Stormwater Training Innovations

As NPDES permit language and training requirements evolve, training methods must remain adaptable, prioritize applied knowledge, and enhance environmental stewardship. Traditional classroom-based instruction, though foundational, cannot cover the complexities experienced in the field. Additionally, it is challenging to inspect practices if they have not been seen under

good- and bad-performing conditions previously. In response, state DOTs and training partners are increasingly turning to innovative training approaches that emphasize practical application, performance-based strategies, and emerging technologies.

2.7.1 Innovative Solutions

Transportation stormwater management—particularly during construction—has historically followed a “check-the-box” approach to compliance, as described in Faganʼs Five Pillars article in TR News (Fagan 2020). However, a 2018 survey of Tennessee DOT stormwater practitioners revealed a continued need for improved contractor training in the installation and maintenance of temporary stormwater control measures, despite most contractors being certified in erosion and sediment control practices (Schwartz and Hathaway 2018). This underscores the need for innovative training strategies that go beyond traditional PowerPoint presentations and handouts.

As regulatory pressures have increased, state DOTs are beginning to challenge conventional management strategies by piloting new practices on active sites and forming partnerships to develop performance-based approaches. The 2020 issue of TR News focuses on stormwater in the transportation sector, highlighting innovations in research and training. One framework presented is Faganʼs Five Pillars of Construction Stormwater Management, which encourages practitioners to manage (1) communication, (2) work, (3) water, (4) erosion, and (5) sediment—in that order. This holistic approach addresses the root causes of stormwater discharge before treating the symptom (sediment), resulting in greater effectiveness and cost-efficiency (Fagan 2020). This approach has been supported by ongoing presentations and training sessions delivered through conferences, webinars, and DOT knowledge-sharing events.

The 2020 TR News also features the AU-SRF, formerly the Erosion and Sediment Control Testing Facility. AU-SRF is primarily a research and development center, but it also offers hands-on installer workshops that allow practitioners to practice installation techniques. These workshops are complemented by Field Day events, which showcase a variety of BMP installations, including state DOT standard installations and proprietary products, featuring live flow demonstrations. An aerial image of the training facility layout is shown in Figure 2.1.

In addition to AU-SRF, other institutions such as North Carolina State University and the Texas A&M Transportation Institute host similar stormwater training events (Schussler et al. 2022). These programs provide unique opportunities for contractors, designers, and inspectors to engage with stormwater practices in real-world or simulated conditions, reinforcing technical knowledge through experiential learning.

A recent article in Environmental Connection magazine further emphasizes the value of hands-on training events (Donald et al. 2025). These range from field-day demonstrations led by stormwater contractors and product manufacturers to interactive installations and test demonstrations. Participants gain firsthand experience with BMPs in simulated rain or flow events. Examples of events included the Oklahoma Construction Contractor Compliance Conference, AU-SRF Field Day, and Bowling Greenʼs Muddy Water Blues. These events highlighted industry support and helped participants engage directly with the products and practices they will encounter in the field (Donald et al. 2025).

A recent synthesis by Whitman et al. (2023) investigates the use of unmanned aerial system (UAS) in stormwater inspections. At the time, the synthesis found that 12 state DOTs had adopted UAS for stormwater inspections, often because of the presence of an internal champion. However, one DOT reported consistent use of UAS, while nine reported rare use, citing a lack of trained personnel qualified to conduct inspections for regulatory compliance. The study concluded that broader adoption of UAS technology would require increased training and the development of qualified personnel. As UAS technologies are adopted in stormwater applications, training materials should be developed and delivered for effective technology transfer.

2.7.2 Channels for Continuing Education

Continuing education can take many shapes—often, continuing education opportunities can be pursued through the original training or credential provider. In other cases, state DOTs may offer their own continuing education. For example, the Alabama DOT does not offer its certification program, but it does offer continuing education to QCIs (ALDOT 2025). Private credentialing companies, like Ecopliant, recommend gaining the required PDHs from organizations like the International Erosion Control Association, StormCON, and Stormwater University (Ecopliant Environmental, Inc. 2025). As virtual learning has increased in availability, opportunities for PDHs are more prevalent.

In some cases, universities offer continuing education through webinars or other short-form series. For example, the AU-SRF supplements its hands-on training and demonstrations offered annually at AU-SRF, researchers and educators have developed the “Stormwater Quick Dip Series.” The short-video series provides explanations of permits, terms, and instructional videos for stormwater practice implementation (Macdonald 2025). Social media is the primary mechanism for disseminating the series (Schussler et al. 2022).

NCHRP Report 768 has estimates that Texas DOT used 6 total hours per week to update social media sites in 2014 (Hood et al. 2014). As social media has increased in popularity and visibility, it is likely that state agencies are leveraging these opportunities to increase public education. COSWA, of which the Oklahoma DOT is a member, operates social media pages (COSWA, n.d.).

In such cases, social media sites often provide metrics to gauge impact, such as number of followers, views, likes, comments. The constituents, particularly generations who have grown up in the social media era, may feel more inclined to interact with agencies via social media. A 2010 study on Web 2.0 applications in transportation by Volpe reports a reduction in calls to emergency centers and questions regarding project schedules (Volpe 2010).

Resources that offer training and their websites include the following:

AASHTO Center for Environmental Excellence

• https://environment.transportation.org/focus-areas/stormwater/

Colorado Stormwater Center

• http://stormwatercenter.colostate.edu/courses-certifications/

EPA

• https://www.epa.gov/npdes/construction-general-permit-inspector-training

North Carolina State University Training

• https://bae.ncsu.edu/workshops-conferences/

Tennessee Water Resources Research Center

• https://tnwrrc.tennessee.edu/training/trainingprograms.html

Texas DOT

• https://www.txdot.gov/business/resources/environmental/stormwater.html
• https://www.txdot.gov/business/resources/environmental/environmental-management-system.html
• https://www.txdot.gov/about/campaigns-outreach/beyond-the-road-campaign.html

University of Minnesota

• https://erosion.umn.edu/courses-registration