Governance and Opportunity in Metropolitan America (1999)
Chapter: Index
INDEX
A
African Americans, see Black persons
Agglomeration economies, 19, 32-34, 125-126
see also Economies of scale
Agricultural land, see Rural areas
Aid, see Equalization aid;
Subsidies and aid
Air quality, 296, 304, 310-321
automobile use, 296, 299, 300, 304, 309, 314, 316-318, 319
federal regulations, 304, 310, 313-317, 319-320
Air Pollution Control District Act (CA), 310
Air Quality Act, 310
Alaska, 262-263
Alcohol use and abuse, 56, 226
Annexation, 28-29, 63, 95, 96, 203, 240, 243, 268, 276
see also Elasticity
Anti-Snob Zoning Act (MA), 158
Arizona, 262-263
Arkansas, 260
Asians, 178
children, 20
residential segregation, 27
home ownership, 193
individualism and equal opportunity, 18
neighborhood effects, 54-55;
see also Peer influences
racial prejudice, 46, 90-91, 195, 201, 238-239, 242
residential segregation, 57
suburban residents toward inner city, 10, 52, 89, 132, 201, 271
suburban residents toward low-income housing, 29-30, 90-91, 158, 236, 238-239, 242
see also Racial discrimination
Automobiles, 6, 84, 160-161, 170, 287
regional transportation policy, 296, 299, 300, 304, 309, 314, 316318, 319
B
central cities, general, 25, 26, 57, 193-194, 230, 240
central-city/suburban disparities, 42, 69, 195, 202, 205, 207, 208, 209, 214-216
educational attainment, 47, 49, 50, 52, 61- 62, 67, 69, 70, 195, 220-221, 229
employment, spatial mismatch hypothesis, 5-6, 52, 57, 217, 220-221, 223, 224-225, 227, 228
see also ''segregation, residential'' infra
income, 5, 16, 20, 27, 46-50, 61, 62, 67, 120, 158, 195, 215-216;
see also "poverty" infra
local government fragmentation/consolidation, 106-107
neighborhood effects, 218, 227, 228, 240
poverty, 5-7, 16, 20, 27, 48, 54, 57, 195, 202, 205, 207, 208, 209, 214-216
segregation, educational, 26, 49
segregation, residential, 6-7, 18-19, 26, 27, 49, 56-57, 58-59, 67, 69-70, 198-199, 202, 205, 206, 228, 229, 237-238, 242
spatial distribution, general, 214-216
see also "central-city/suburban disparities" supra
Boston, Massachusetts, 57, 154, 161-162, 225
Bureau of the Census, 9, 20, 117, 195
C
California, 80, 82, 94, 161, 162, 165, 255, 262-263, 279, 302, 310-311, 312-316, 317, 320
see also Los Angeles, California;
San Francisco, California
Canada, 171
Census Bureau, see Bureau of the Census
agglomeration economies, 32-34, 35, 125-126
black persons, general, 25, 26, 57, 193-194, 230, 240
costs of urban decline, 11, 14, 19-20, 35, 36, 71, 127, 192, 288
definition of metropolitan area, 22, 38-39(n.1), 199-206
economic competitiveness, 22, 32-34, 115
elasticity, 10, 45, 63-64, 120, 127, 193, 203, 206-207, 208, 240, 254, 269
annexation, 28-29, 63, 95, 96, 203, 240, 243, 268, 276
local government fragmentation and, 64, 65, 66
employment, 22, 33-34, 52-53, 131, 132
spatial mismatch hypothesis, 5-6, 7-8, 32, 51-52, 57, 61, 67, 216-217, 220-230 (passim)
enterprise zones, 86-87, 123, 230-233, 234
low-income housing, 53, 59, 130-131, 153
low-income minorities. isolation, 3, 5, 6-7, 10, 56-59, 201, 237
minorities, general, 25, 201, 230
place-based strategies, 87-88, 123, 230-234
political factors, 22, 36-38, 254
racial segregation, 25-26
spatial distribution, general, 24-26, 230
spatial mismatch hypothesis, 5-6, 7-8, 32, 51-52, 57, 61, 67, 216-217, 220-230 (passim)
suburbs' relation to, 4-6, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 19-20, 21, 24-25, 34-36;
see also Central city/suburban disparities
value of central cities, 32-38
see also Tax/service disparities
Central-city/suburban disparities
black persons, 42, 69, 195, 202, 205, 207, 208, 209, 214-216
educational attainment, 41-43, 45, 46, 58, 67-68, 194-199 (passim), 204, 273-274
educational services, 4, 17, 35
employment, 4, 5, 16, 17, 33-34, 35, 36, 41, 45, 52, 58, 62-63, 68, 69, 194-204 (passim), 214-217, 225, 281-282, 306;
see also "worker mobility strategies" infra
spatial mismatch hypothesis, 5-6, 7-8, 32, 51-52, 57, 61, 67, 216-217, 220-230 (passim);
see also "worker mobility strategies" infra
Gautreaux program (Chicago), 57-58, 90, 123, 218-219, 227-228, 238
Hispanics, 195, 202, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 240
historical perspectives, 4, 20, 24-25, 27, 35, 41-43, 51, 63, 193, 196-197, 200, 214-215
income, 4, 16, 20, 35, 36, 41-42, 43-45, 58-59, 62-68, 120, 194-208 (passim), 215-216, 217;
see also "poverty" infra
individuals, disparities among, 41-46
local government fragmentation/consolidation, 65, 66, 106-107
population size and density, 43-44, 192, 193, 201, 205
poverty, 4, 16, 26-27, 29, 42, 43-44, 52-53, 90-91, 97-98, 110, 194-198 (passim), 254, 267-268, 307-309
racial segregation, general, 57-58
regional factors, 43, 44-45, 120, 200-201, 203-205, 207, 208, 209
spatial mismatch hypothesis, 5-6, 7-8, 32, 51-52, 57, 61, 67, 216-217, 220-230 (passim);
see also "worker mobility strategies" infra
taxation, general, 34, 35, 37;
see also Tax/service disparities
transportation, general, 305-306, 307
worker mobility strategies, 10, 86, 88-89, 94, 95, 123, 131, 132, 227, 235-236;
see also "spatial mismatch hypothesis" supra
see also Tax/service disparities
Centralization/decentralization policies, 3, 7-9, 10, 11, 23-24, 64-67, 96-98, 104-115, 116, 128, 160, 203, 206, 240, 242-243
black persons, attitudes toward, 106-107
central-city/suburban disparities, 65, 66, 106-107
defined, 65
demographic factors, general, 66
economies of scale, 9, 33, 65, 104-105, 106, 112, 270, 271-272, 273, 279
fiscal capacity, general, 65-66
historical perspectives, 106, 110, 114, 270
income, 66-67
minority groups, general, 107-108, 238
nested government, 11, 112-113, 128-129
quasi-governmental organizations, 286-287
racial/income segregation, 8, 11, 66-67, 124
regional factors, 66, 107, 110-111, 113-114, 116-117, 124-125, 276;
see also Special districts
research recommendations, 120-121, 124
services, general, 8-9, 10, 65-66, 110-112
spatial opportunity structures, 64-65, 241
municipal incorporation, 8, 28-29, 31, 115, 268
subsidies and aid, 111, 114-115, 129
taxation, general, 107-108, 203
tax/service disparities, 8, 75, 116, 203, 268, 269-272
transportation, 111, 274, 296-310, 318-321
two-tier governments, 21, 95, 96, 97, 106, 268, 272-274, 287
unequal opportunity, general, 8, 65-66
see also Special districts
Chicago, Illinois, 17, 57-58, 62, 74, 90, 91, 198, 281
Gautreaux program, 57-58, 90, 123, 218-219, 227-228, 238
Children, 54, 56, 91, 219, 239
income segregation, 59, 117, 158, 192
minority, general, 20
peer influences, 54-55, 59, 92, 94, 117, 122, 158, 218, 219, 226, 239
tax/service disparities, 75
youth employment, 221-224
see also Education
Cities Without Suburbs, 239
Classification issues
elasticity, 62-63
high-poverty areas, 39(n.4)
metropolitan areas, 22, 38-39(n.1, n.3), 199-206
metropolitan governance, 14-15, 176
Clean Air Act (federal), 310, 313, 315-317
Clean Air Acts (CA), 314, 315, 316, 320
Cleveland, Ohio, 108, 113-114, 283, 297
Coleman report, 60
Colorado, 262-263
Community development corporations/financial institutions, 87-88, 123, 232-234
Commuters and commuting, 6, 22
commuter taxes, 7, 98, 101, 123, 133, 267, 281-282
gasoline taxes, 84
reverse commuting, 10, 89, 217, 235-236
suburbanization, 28, 159, 160-161, 162, 308
tax/service disparities, 7, 98, 101, 123, 133, 253-254, 270, 281-282
worker mobility, 10, 86, 88-89, 94, 95, 123, 131, 132, 227, 235-236
poverty and employment mobility, 10, 86, 88-89, 94, 95, 123, 131, 132, 227, 235-236
spatial mismatch hypothesis, 5-6, 32, 51-52, 56, 57, 61, 67, 89, 216-217, 220-230 (passim)
see also Mass transit
Computer applications
air quality controls, 315
employment databases, 236
Connecticut, 156
Consolidation/fragmentation, see Centralization/decentralization policies
Construction industry, see Building codes;
Housing
Counties, 15, 23, 39(n.1), 82, 243
air quality controls, 311-312
equalization aid, 101
government fragmentation/consolidation, 65, 97, 98
tax/service disparities, 255, 262-266, 270, 272, 273, 280-281
transportation policy, 297
Court cases
air quality control, 317
education, 279
mass transit, 308
zoning, 83, 154-155, 158, 165, 168, 174-175, 180-181
neighborhood effects, 6, 54, 56, 70, 226
police, 9, 19, 75-76, 83, 158, 218, 234, 267, 268, 273-274, 280, 286
segregation, general, 70
tax/service disparities, 75, 267, 268, 273-274, 280, 286
Cultural factors
city institutions, 19
public choice factors, 105
residential segregation, 57
see also Neighborhood effects;
Social factors
D
Decentralization, see Centralization/decentralization policies
Delaware, 260
Demographic factors, 22, 201-202, 205
local government fragmentation, 66
tax/service disparities, general, 75
see also Family factors;
Gender factors;
Minority groups;
Neighborhood effects;
Population size and density;
specific minority groups
Department of Housing and Urban Development, 232
Department of Transportation, 301-302
Detroit, Michigan, 57, 69, 112, 225, 269
Discrimination, see Racial discrimination
District of Columbia, see Washington, D.C.
E
Economic issues, general, 13-14
agglomeration economies, 19, 32-33, 125-126
costs of urban decline, 11, 14, 19-20, 35
speculation, 172-173
see also Community development corporations;
Employment and unemployment;
Enterprise zones;
Funding;
Income;
Place-based initiatives;
Poverty;
Socioeconomic status;
Subsidies and aid;
Taxation;
Tax/service disparities
Economies of scale, 9, 33, 65, 104-105, 106, 112, 270, 271-272, 273, 279
see also Agglomeration economies
black persons, segregation, 26, 49
central cities vs suburbs, 4, 17, 35
court cases, 279
equalization aid, 102-103, 123
expenditures, 10
Hispanics, segregation, 26
labor market skills, 86, 91-94, 133-134
life-style issues, 14
minorities, general, 26, 47, 131-132
property tax, 174-175
segregation, 26, 69, 70, 94, 219-220, 226, 239
tax/service disparities, 7, 75, 122, 174-175, 255, 267, 278, 279, 280
white flight, 239
Educational attainment, 5, 40, 60-61, 104, 122, 123
black persons, 47, 49, 50, 52, 61-62, 67, 69, 70, 195, 220-221, 229
central cities vs suburbs, 41-43, 45, 46, 58, 67-68, 194-199 (passim), 204, 273-274
low-skilled workers, 4, 5, 17, 18, 32, 34, 42, 46, 62, 63, 68, 121, 217, 219, 222, 224, 236, 282
minorities, general, 26, 47, 131-132
neighborhood effects, 49, 54-55, 56, 69, 219-220, 226
peer influences, 54-55, 219, 239
population size and, 61-62
segregation, 26, 69, 70, 195, 220-221, 229
vouchers and, 93-94
white persons, less educated, 217, 222
Elasticity, 10, 45, 63-64, 120, 127, 193, 203, 206-207, 208, 240, 254, 269
annexation, 28-29, 63, 95, 96, 203, 240, 243, 268, 276
local government fragmentation vs, 64, 65, 66
see also Sprawl
Ellen, Ingrid Gould, 44, 49, 56, 58, 64, 66, 238-239, 242
Employment and unemployment, 9, 40, 218-219, 220
black persons, 5-6, 47, 49, 52, 61, 67, 68-69, 71, 89, 95, 195, 214-216, 229
reverse commuting, 236
spatial mismatch hypothesis, 5-6, 52, 57, 217, 220-221, 223, 224-225, 227, 228
central cities, 22, 33-34, 52-53, 131, 132
central cities vs suburbs, 4, 5, 16, 17, 33-34, 35, 36, 41, 45, 52, 58, 62-63, 68, 69, 194-204 (passim), 214-217, 225, 281-282, 306
classification issues, 14, 215
community development corporations, 233
databases, 236
enterprise zones, 86, 231, 232
gender factors, 214, 215, 222, 223
information networks, 89
labor market skills, 86, 91-94
low-skilled workers, 4, 5, 17, 18, 32, 34, 42, 46, 62, 63, 68, 121, 217, 219, 222, 224, 236, 282
market forces, 14, 17-18, 33, 229
minorities, general, 4-5, 16, 20, 47
neighborhood effects, 6, 54, 55, 56, 57, 218, 220, 227, 228, 240
population size, 61
poverty and mobility, 10, 86, 88-89, 94, 95, 123, 131, 132, 227, 235-236
property rights, 179
racial discrimination, 5-6, 10, 52, 57, 68-69, 89, 94-95, 121, 132
regional factors, 200-201
research recommendations, 117
segregation, 68-69, 71, 214-216, 229
state politics, 177
suburbs, 22, 33-34, 132, 163-164
discrimination, 5-6, 10, 19, 57, 95, 132
worker mobility strategies, 10, 86, 88-89, 94, 95, 123, 131, 132, 227, 235-236
see also "central cities vs suburbs" supra
worker mobility, 10, 86, 88-89, 94, 95, 123, 131, 132, 227, 235-236
poverty and, 10, 86, 88-89, 94, 95, 123, 131, 132, 227, 235-236
youth, 221-224
see also Commuters and commuting
Enterprise zones, 86-87, 123, 230-233, 234
Environmental protection, 13, 38
air quality, 296, 299, 300, 304, 309, 310-321
study at hand, methodology, vii
Environmental Protection Agency, 316, 317, 319
Equalization aid, 7, 10, 72, 101-103, 123, 125, 133, 268, 278-280, 284
place-based initiatives, 86-88, 123, 230-234
centralization/decentralization, 8
regional air quality, 318-319
regional transportation, 307-309
Ethical issues, see Moral and ethical issues
Ethnicity, see Minority groups
Europe, 31
immigrants from, residential segregation, 56-57
income segregation, 59
F
Fair Housing Act (NJ), 155
Family factors, 16, 54, 94, 164, 218
Farmland, see Rural areas
Federal government, 21
air quality control, 304, 310, 313-317, 319-320
enterprise zones, 86
equalization aid, 101-102
metropolitan governance, 111, 114-115
subsidies and aid, 74, 101-102, 111, 114-115, 298-303, 304, 306-307
tax/service disparities, 98, 253, 254, 268, 278, 281, 287-288
transportation, 298-303, 304, 306-307
worker mobility programs, 89
see also Legislation, specific federal;
specific departments and agencies
Federal Highway Acts, 298
Federal Highway Trust Fund, 299
Fiscal capacity, 29, 72-77, 120, 126, 127, 281-282
community development corporations/financial institutions, 87-88, 123, 232-234
local government fragmentation, 65-66
see also Equalization aid;
Taxation;
Tax/service disparities
Fischel, William, 59, 81, 83, 84-85
Jacksonville, Florida, 97, 107
Foreign countries, see International perspectives
Fragmentation/consolidation, see Centralization/decentralization policies
Funding
educational vouchers, 92-93
enterprise zones, 86
equalization aid, 101-103
growth controls, 84
metropolitan governance, 111
transportation, 298-303, 304, 306-308
worker mobility programs, 89
see also Subsidies and aid;
Taxation
G
Gautreaux program (Chicago), 57-58, 90, 123, 218-219, 227-228, 238
Gender factors
central-city/suburban disparities, 214, 215
employment, 214, 215, 222, 223
high-poverty neighborhoods, 54
Geography, see Spatial distribution factors
Georgia, 260-263
Government revenues and expenditures, 65, 75, 120
consolidation of local governments, 106
criminal justice system, 71
see also Funding;
Public services;
Subsidies and aid;
Taxation;
Tax/service disparities
Grants, see Subsidies and aid
H
Highways, see Transportation
Hispanics, 119
central cities, 25, 26, 46, 193-194, 195
central-city/suburban disparities, 195, 202, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 240
children, 20
educational attainment, 5, 47, 49-51, 195
educational segregation, 26
residential segregation, 27, 58-59, 176, 205, 206, 208, 209, 237
Historical perspectives, 27, 63
agglomeration economies, 34
air quality controls, 310-316
central-city/suburban disparities, 4, 20, 24-25, 27, 35, 41-43, 51, 63, 193, 196-197, 200, 214-215
commuter taxes, 282
educational segregation, 26
equalization aid, 102
income segregation, 153, 154, 157, 197-198
land area of metropolitan areas, 23, 63-64
local government fragmentation/consolidation, 106, 110, 114, 270
national politics, 18
population living in metropolitan areas, 22-23, 24-25, 27, 193-194
residential segregation, 26, 56-57, 240
suburbanization, 24, 28, 153, 154, 157, 158, 159-161, 175, 193, 195, 196
taxation, 101, 256-267, 282, 288
transportation policy, 296-304, 309
Housing
attitudes toward home ownership, 193
discrimination, 11-12;
see also Residential segregation
market forces, general, 14
minorities, general, 89
sprawl, 13, 33, 84-85, 109, 151-191, 237
state policies, 8, 80-81, 236-237
transportation and, 309
vouchers, 10, 58, 90, 123, 131, 227, 237
see also Land use;
Low-income housing;
Residential segregation;
Zoning
I
Ihlanfeldt, Keith, 52, 55, 57-58, 61, 87, 88-89, 90, 192
see also Chicago, Illinois
Immigrants
residential segregation, 56-57
sprawl, 177-178
Income
black persons, 5, 16, 20, 27, 46-50, 61, 62, 67, 120, 158, 195, 215-216
central-city/suburban disparities, 4, 16, 20, 35, 36, 41-42, 43-45, 58-59, 62-68, 120, 194-208 (passim), 215-216, 217
classification of urban problems, 14
disparities, general, 40
educational attainment and, 61, 239
globalization and wages, 18
minorities, general, 195
neighborhood effects, 7, 16, 21, 30, 56, 59, 118, 124, 151, 153-154, 192, 197-198
population size and, 62
research recommendations, 117
residential segregation, 6-7, 9, 10, 16, 18-19, 21, 27, 29-31, 59-60, 65, 66-67, 70, 80, 117, 118, 124, 131, 151, 153-161, 169, 182, 192, 197-198, 199, 201-202, 229, 237
spatial mismatch hypothesis, 222
suburbanization, 28, 153-161, 169, 170
see also Employment and unemployment;
Poverty
Income tax, 34, 77, 101, 133, 172, 173, 255, 256, 260-261, 266, 267, 282, 283-284, 295
Indianapolis, Indiana, 107, 109, 111, 115
Infrastructure, 15, 107, 178, 269
system maintenance, 14, 15, 19, 306-307
see also Public services;
Tax/service disparities;
Transportation
Inner-City Poverty in the United States, vii
Inner-ring suburbs, 3, 4, 41, 76, 162-163, 170, 192
Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act, 111, 274, 288, 304
International perspectives
enterprise zones, 232
European countries, 31, 56-57, 59, 162-163, 165, 167
housing costs, 178
local government factors in spatial distribution, 29, 30, 31, 118-119
mass transit, 170
spatial distribution factors, general, 29, 30, 31, 118-119
suburbs, 29, 118, 151, 153, 162-163, 165, 168, 170, 171
tax/service disparities, 287
Interact, 180
Iowa, 260-263
J
Jacksonville, Florida, 97, 107
K
Kansas, 262-263
Kentucky, 260
L
land area of metropolitan areas, historical perspectives, 23, 63-64
local government, general, 8, 59, 64, 80, 130
international perspectives, 29, 30, 31, 118-119
spatial distribution, general, 22, 29, 30, 119
political factors, 81,237, 239-241
state policy, 8, 11, 80-81, 82-84, 119, 130, 154-155, 168, 177, 180-181, 236-237
transportation policy and, 309-310
see also Elasticity;
Housing;
Property rights;
Property tax;
Rural areas;
Spatial distribution factors;
Zoning
Legal issues
antidiscrimination laws, 11-12, 94-95, 108, 131, 132, 237, 308, 319
see also Court cases;
Property rights;
Regulatory issues;
Zoning
Legislation, specific federal, 180, 319-320
Air Quality Act, 310
Clean Air Act, 310, 313, 315-317
Federal Highway Acts, 298
Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act, 111, 274, 288, 304
Voting Rights Act, 108
Urban Mass Transportation Act, 301
Legislation, specific state, 177, 180-181, 283, 312, 314-315
Act 250 (Vermont), 177
Air Pollution Control District Act (CA), 310
Anti-Snob Zoning Act (MA), 158
Clean Air Acts (CA), 314, 315, 316, 320
Fair Housing Act (NJ), 155
Livable Communities Act (MN), 83-84
Mulford-Carrell Air Resources Act (CA), 310
Litigation, see Court cases
Livable Communities Act (MN), 83-84
international perspectives, 29, 30, 31, 118-119
spatial distribution, general, 22, 29, 30, 119
political factors, 22, 36-38, 64, 104, 107-109, 110, 113, 126, 163, 176-177, 239-241, 270, 271, 272-273, 276-278
spatial distribution factors, general, 29-32
spatial opportunity structures, 213-214, 239-241
state policy and, 8, 11, 18, 21, 76, 98, 99, 101, 102-103, 104, 260-267, 277, 278, 280-281
metropolitan consolidation policies, 109-110, 115, 128-130
municipal incorporation policies, 8, 28-29, 31, 115, 268
tax/service disparities, 76, 98, 99, 101, 102-103, 104, 260-267, 277, 278, 280-285
see also Equalization aid
see also Centralization/decentralization policies;
Counties;
Regional factors;
Taxation;
Tax/service disparities;
Zoning
Los Angeles, California, 17, 25, 57, 157, 198, 225, 299, 300, 302, 310, 313-315, 316, 317, 319
Louisiana, 262-263
Low-income housing, 53, 59, 81-82, 84-85, 130-131, 237
central cities, 53, 59, 130-131, 153
Gautreaux program (Chicago), 57-58, 90, 123, 218-219, 227-228, 238
regulatory issues, 89-90, 130-131
suburbs, 81-82, 84-85, 89-91, 107, 110, 130
attitudes toward low-income housing, 29-30, 90-91, 158, 236, 238-239, 242
sprawl and, 151-152, 153, 154-158, 171-172, 176
vouchers, 10, 58, 90, 123, 131, 227, 237
Low-income persons, see Poverty
M
Mass transit, 51, 170, 235, 286, 300-306, 307-309
Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act, 111, 274, 288, 304
international perspectives, 170
Massachusetts, 158
Metropolitan governance, general, 104-115, 116, 128-131, 176, 202-203
air quality control, 296, 304, 310-320
annexation, 28-29, 63, 95, 96, 203, 240, 243, 268, 276
automobiles, regional policies, 296, 299, 300, 304, 309, 314, 316-318, 319
local government fragmentation/consolidation, 66, 107, 110-111, 113-114, 116-117, 124-125, 276;
see also Special districts
metropolitan planning organizations, 111-112, 114, 125, 274, 277, 302, 303-304
metropolitanization, general, 104-111
opportunity structures, 104-115
politics of, 36, 37, 104, 107-109, 110
population distribution, 80
poverty, 107
scope of study at hand, vii-viii, 3, 13, 14, 20-21
state government role, 11, 109-110, 115
tax/service disparities, 96-98, 99, 107, 254, 277, 278
see also Centralization/decentralization policies;
Local government;
Regional factors;
State government
Metropolitan planning organizations, 111-112, 114, 125, 274, 277, 302, 303-304
Miami, Florida, 97, 106, 107, 108
Michigan, 260
Detroit, 57, 69, 112, 225, 269
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 74-75, 98
Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota, 37-38, 81, 83-84, 99, 109-110, 115, 275, 284-285
Minnesota, 37-38, 81, 104, 129, 262-263
Minority groups, general, 3-4, 16, 46-51, 123, 201
central cities, general, 25, 201, 230
employment gap, 4-5, 16, 20, 47
intergroup relations, 14
local government fragmentation/consolidation, 107-108, 238
municipal incorporation, 31
segregation, residential, 3, 5, 6-7, 10, 56-59, 201, 237
spatial distribution, other, 21, 119, 134, 194-195
spatial mismatch hypothesis, 52
tax/service disparities, 97
see also Immigrants;
Racial discrimination;
specific groups
Missouri, 108, 260-261, 263-264
Mobility, 288
poverty and racial concentration, 10
research recommendations, 117
residential, 86, 89-91, 117, 230, 236-239, 241;
see also Residential segregation
workers, 10, 86, 88-89, 94, 95, 123, 131, 132, 227, 235-236
poverty and employment mobility, 10, 86, 88-89, 94, 95, 123, 131, 132, 227, 235-236
spatial mismatch hypothesis, 5-6, 32, 51-52, 56, 57, 61, 67, 89, 216-217, 220-230 (passim)
see also Commuters and commuting;
Transportation
Moral and ethical issues, 18, 151
Motor vehicles, see Automobiles
Mulford-Carrell Air Resources Act (CA), 310
N
Nashville, Tennessee, 97, 107, 108
National Commission on Urban Problems, 157
Neighborhood effects, vii, 6, 14, 104, 131, 132, 213, 217-219, 225-227, 230
air quality, 318-319
attitudes, general, 54-55
black neighborhoods, 218, 227, 228, 240
community development corporations, 233
educational attainment, 49, 54-55, 56, 69, 219-220, 226
employment, 6, 54, 55, 56, 57, 218, 220, 227, 228, 240
income segregation, 7, 16, 21, 30, 56, 59, 118, 124, 151, 153-154, 192, 197-198
peer influences, 54-55, 59, 92, 94, 117, 122, 158, 218, 219, 226, 239
poverty, impacts of, 6, 7, 16, 17, 53-56, 59, 117-118, 197-198, 213, 217-219, 225
racial segregation, 7, 16, 21, 53, 118, 198-199, 206, 238, 240
research recommendations, 117, 118, 122, 242
spatial mismatch hypothesis, 56, 225, 227
see also Residential segregation
Nested government, 11, 112-113, 128-129
Nevada, 264-265
New Hampshire, 155
New Jersey, 63, 80, 82, 83, 97, 154-155, 174-175, 181, 231, 311
New Mexico, 264-265
New York State, 260
North Carolina, 61, 94, 264-265
North Dakota, 264-265
O
Ohio, 260, 264-265, 275-276, 283, 297, 311
Cleveland, 108, 113-114, 283, 297
Oklahoma, 264-265
Portland, 38, 81, 84, 109, 110-111, 172, 177
P
Pagano, Michael, 74, 76, 77, 96-97, 100, 103, 106, 108, 112
Peer influences
children, 54-55, 59, 92, 94, 117, 122, 158, 218, 219, 226, 239
educational attainment, 54-55, 219, 239
scientists, 179
Pennsylvania, 165, 223, 235, 260
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 235
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 223
Place-based initiatives, 86-88, 123, 230-234
Police, 9, 19, 75-76, 83, 158, 218, 234, 267, 268, 273-274, 280, 286, 308
Policy options, viii, 4, 9, 11-12, 20, 127-134, 152
antidiscrimination laws, 11-12, 94-95, 108, 131, 132, 237, 308, 319
disparities, reduction of, 79-115
see also "worker mobility strategies" infra
see also "tax/service disparities" infra
housing, 11-12, 80-82, 84-85, 89, 90
land use, 81-82
metropolitan governance, 11, 20-21, 104-115
residential, 86, 89-91, 117, 230, 236-239, 241
spatial opportunity structures, 11, 124, 85-115, 119, 213-214, 230-239
tax/service disparities, 95-104, 268-285
worker mobility strategies, 10, 86, 88-89, 94, 95, 123, 131, 132, 227, 235-236
see also Centralization/decentralization policies
Political factors, 8, 14, 29, 239, 254
air quality controls, 314
central cities, 22, 36-38, 254
land use policy, 81, 237, 239-241;
see also "zoning" infra
local governments, 22, 36-38, 64, 104, 107-109, 110, 113, 126, 163, 176-177, 239-241, 270, 271, 272-273, 276-278
metropolitan governance, general, 36, 37, 104, 107-109, 110
national, 18
public choice factors, 105
regional, 15, 36, 37, 110, 113-114, 300, 305-306, 307-309, 314
social science, 179
state-level, 11, 28, 37, 177, 181, 280
suburbanization. 28-29, 158, 163, 164-165, 176-178, 254
tax/service disparities, 95-98, 100, 105, 268-269, 270, 271, 272-273, 276-278, 280, 284-285, 288
Population size and density, 61-63, 120
central-city/suburban disparities, 43-44, 192, 193, 201, 205
educational attainment and, 61-62
elasticity and, 10, 45, 63-64, 269
employment and, 61
historical perspectives, 22-23, 24-25, 27, 193-194
income and, 62
metropolitan area defined, 22, 38-39(n.1, n.3)
spatial distribution, general, 10, 61-62
sprawl, 13, 33, 109, 151-191, 237
tax/service disparities, 75, 254, 269, 277
Portland, Oregon, 38, 81, 84, 109, 110-111, 172, 177
black persons, 5-7, 16, 20, 27, 48, 54, 57, 195, 202, 205, 207, 208, 209, 214-216
central cities vs suburbs, 4, 16, 26-27, 29, 42, 43-44, 52-53, 90-91, 97-98, 110, 194-198 (passim), 254, 267-268, 307-309
classification of poverty areas, 39(n.4)
community development corporations/financial institutions, 87-88
definitional issues, 39(n.4)
educational services, 91-92, 94, 123, 131-132, 192
employment mobility, 10, 86, 88-89, 94, 95, 123, 131, 132, 227, 235-236
enterprise zones, 86-87
gender factors, 54
income segregation, 6-7, 9, 10, 16, 18-19, 21, 27, 29-31, 59-60, 65, 66-67, 70, 80, 117, 118, 124, 131, 151, 153-161, 169, 182, 192, 197-198, 199, 201-202, 229, 237
minority groups, general, 4-5, 10, 16, 53
neighborhood effects, 6, 7, 16, 17, 53-56, 59, 117-118, 197-198, 213, 217-219, 225
research recommendations, 117-118, 125
social isolation, 6, 7-8, 52-53, 89, 156, 158-159;
see also "neighborhood effects" supra
spatial distribution factors, general, 27, 119
see also "central cities vs suburbs" supra
tax/service disparities, 73, 76, 97-98, 254, 278, 281
transportation, 305-306, 307-308;
see also Mobility (workers)
zoning discrimination, 11-12, 29;
see also Zoning (exclusionary)
see also Low-income housing;
Subsidies and aid;
Welfare
Property rights, 84-85, 152, 165, 168, 178-182
Property tax, 30, 75, 97, 99, 100-101, 102, 255, 256, 282
educational services and, 174-175
regional factors, 201
Public services, 6, 10, 30, 126
fragmented vs consolidated local government, and 8-9, 10, 65-66, 110-112
residential segregation, 57
surburbanization and, 152
see also Education;
Infrastructure;
Mass transit;
Police;
Special
districts;
Tax/service disparities;
Welfare
Public transportation, see Mass transit
Q
Quality of life, general, 14, 15, 129
suburban residents, 20
Quasi-governmental organizations, 286-287
R
Racial discrimination, 11-12, 18-19
antidiscrimination laws, 11-12, 94-95, 108, 131, 132, 237, 308, 319
attitudes, general, 46, 90-91, 195, 201, 238-239, 242
employment, 5-6, 10, 52, 57, 68-69, 89, 94-95, 121, 132
residential segregation, vii, 5-6, 8, 10, 25-26, 27, 31, 51, 56-59, 69-71, 118-119, 131, 158, 198-199, 201-202, 205, 213, 229, 237, 240
black persons, 6-7, 18-19, 26, 27, 49, 56-57, 58-59, 67, 69-70, 198-199, 202, 205, 206, 228, 229, 237-238, 242
educational attainment and, 49, 69
employment, 69
household mobility strategies, 90
international studies, 118-119
local government fragmentation, 8, 11, 66-67, 124
neighborhood effects, 7, 16, 21, 53, 118, 198-199, 206, 238, 240
see also Neighborhood effects
segregation, other, 6-7, 9, 10, 18-19, 46, 57-59, 118, 124, 202, 213
Racial factors, other, see Minority groups
Regional factors, 15, 20, 21, 49, 110, 120
air quality control, 296, 304, 310-320
automobiles, regional policies, 296, 299, 300, 304, 309, 314, 316-318, 319
central cities' relations with suburbs, 35
central-city/suburban disparities, 43, 44-45, 120, 200-201, 203-205, 207, 208, 209
income, black vs white, 47-48, 49
income, central cities vs suburbs, 43, 44-45, 120
local government fragmentation/consolidation, 66, 107, 110-111, 113-114, 116-117, 124-125, 276;
see also Special districts
local government, other, 24
metropolitan planning organizations, 111-112, 114, 125, 274, 277, 302, 303-304
metropolitanization, general, 104-111
place-based initiatives, 86
political factors, 15, 36, 37, 110, 113-114, 300, 305-306, 307-309, 314
research recommendations, 124-125, 242-243
tax/service disparities, 98, 99, 133, 276
transportation policy, 111, 274, 277, 296-310, 318-321
Regression analysis, 69, 70, 76, 193, 199-200, 206-208, 242-243
Regulatory issues
automobile use, 296, 299, 300, 304, 309, 314, 316-318, 319
low-income housing, 89-90, 130-131
sprawl, federal regulations, 28, 175-176
see also Building codes;
Environmental protection;
Standards;
State
government;
Zoning
Research recommendations, 10-11, 117-127
elasticity, 241
income segregation, 58-59, 118, 124
local government fragmentation/consolidation, 120-121, 124
neighborhood effects, 117, 118, 122, 242
segregation, 49
spatial distribution factors, 117-119
spatial opportunity structures, 241-243
unequal opportunity, 9, 10, 117, 127, 129-131
Residential segregation, 6, 8, 9, 52-53, 57, 220, 242-243
black persons, 6-7, 18-19, 26, 27, 49, 56-57, 58-59, 67, 69-70, 198-199, 202, 205, 206, 228, 229, 237-238, 242
elasticity, 240
Gautreaux program (Chicago), 57-58, 90, 123, 218-219, 227-228, 238
Hispanics, 27, 58-59, 176, 205, 206, 208, 209, 237
historical perspectives, 26, 56-57, 240
immigrants, 56-57
income segregation, 6-7, 9, 10, 16, 18-19, 21, 27, 29-31, 59-60, 65, 66-67, 70, 80, 117, 118, 124, 131, 151, 153-161, 169, 182, 192, 197-198, 199, 201-202, 229, 237
international studies, 29, 30, 31, 118-119
neighborhood effects, 7, 16, 21, 53, 118, 198-199, 206, 238, 240
study at hand, methodology, vii
see also Racial discrimination (residential segregation);
Zoning (exclusionary)
Revenue, see Government revenues and expenditures;
Taxation
Roads, see Transportation
Rural areas
transportation policy, 298, 300
zoning, 163-164, 169, 170-171, 172, 175-176
S
Sacramento, California, 313
San Francisco, California, 162, 169-170, 304, 308, 310, 311, 312, 313, 316, 317
Seoul, South Korea, 178
Services, see Public services
Social factors, general, 9, 14, 16
family factors, 16, 54, 94, 164, 218
peer influences, 54-55, 59, 92, 94, 117, 122, 158, 218, 219, 226, 239
poverty and social isolation, 6-8, 52-53, 89, 156, 158-159;
see also Residential segregation
see also Demographic factors;
Minority groups;
Neighborhood effects;
Political factors;
Racial discrimination
Socioeconomic status, general
central cities' relations with suburbs, 35
classification of urban problems. 14
decentralized structures and inequality, 3
research recommendations, 117
see also Income;
Poverty;
Racial discrimination;
Residential segregation
South Dakota, 264-265
South Korea, 178
Spatial distribution factors, 10, 14, 21, 22, 23-28, 67-69, 192-213
black persons, general, 214-216
density of population, 10, 61-62
education, school location, 94
employment, 67-68
discrimination, 69
spatial mismatch hypothesis, 5-6, 7-8, 32, 51-52, 61, 67, 201, 216-217, 220-230 (passim)
international perspectives, 29, 30, 31, 118-119
local government, 29-32
minorities, general, 21, 119, 134, 194-195
place-based initiatives, 86-88, 123, 230-234
research recommendations, 117-119
spatial mismatch hypothesis, 5-6, 7-8, 32, 51-52, 56, 61, 67, 216-217, 220-230 (passim)
spatial opportunity structure, 10, 11, 16-17, 18, 21, 37, 40, 51, 54, 61, 79-115, 116-117, 121-122, 123-125, 127-128, 129, 133-135, 213-252
tax/service disparities, 268-269
see also Elasticity;
Land use;
Neighborhood effects;
Residential
segregation;
Special districts;
Sprawl;
Zoning
Special districts, 23, 98, 112, 125, 129, 269, 272-274, 277
air quality control, 296, 304, 310-321
metropolitan planning organizations, 111-112, 114, 125, 274, 277, 302, 303-304
Speculation, 172-173
Sprawl, 13, 33, 84, 109, 151-191, 237
central-city/suburban disparities, 152, 158, 159, 176
environmental impacts, 175-176, 177-178
immigrants, 177-178
international perspectives, 151, 153, 162-163, 165, 168, 170
opportunity costs, 176
property rights, 84-85, 152, 165, 168, 178-182
property tax, 169, 173-175, 178
see also Elasticity
Stable Neighborhood Initiatives Program, 238, 239
Standards
State government, 3-4, 8, 11, 18, 21, 115, 129-130
air quality controls, 310-315
annexation, 28-29
commuter taxes, 123
employment, 177
enterprise zones, 86-87, 123, 230-233, 234
equalization aid, 7, 10, 72, 101-103, 123, 125, 133, 268, 278-280, 284;
see also Place-based initiatives
land use policies, 8, 11, 80-81, 82-84, 119, 130, 154-155, 168, 177, 180-181, 236-237
local governments and, 8, 11, 18, 21, 76, 98, 99, 101, 102-103, 104, 260-267, 277, 278, 280-281
metropolitan consolidation policies, 109-110, 115, 128-130
municipal incorporation policies, 8, 28-29, 31, 115, 268
tax/service disparities, 76, 98, 99, 101, 102-103, 104, 260-267, 277, 278, 280-285
municipal incorporation policies, 8, 28-29, 115
political factors, 11, 28, 37, 177, 181, 280
rural property tax, 175
subsidies and aid, 74
tax policies, general, 8, 175, 255
tax revenues by state and/or type, tables, 256-257
tax/service disparities, 76, 98, 99, 101, 102-103, 104, 260-267, 277, 278, 280-285;
see also Equalization aid
transportation policies, 298, 299-300, 306
unequal opportunity, 18, 129-130
see also Court cases;
Legislation, specific state;
specific states
Statistical analyses
agglomeration economies, 34
central cities' relations with suburbs, 35-36
local government fragmentation effects, 66
municipal incorporation factors, 31
racial disparities, 49
see also Regression analysis
St. Louis, Missouri, 108
Subsidies and aid
community development corporations/financial institutions, 87-88, 123, 232-234
enterprise zones, 86-87, 123, 230-231, 234
federal government, 74, 101-102, 111, 114-115, 298-303, 304, 306-307
growth controls, 84
metropolitan consolidation, 111, 114-115, 129
sprawl, 171-172
tax/service disparities, 72, 74, 267;
see also Equalization aid
transportation, 298-303, 304, 306-308
zoning and, 30, 82-84, 85, 171-172, 179
see also Vouchers;
Welfare
Suburbs and suburban residents, 4-5, 15, 16, 21, 192
agglomeration economies, 33, 34
attitudes toward inner city, 10, 52, 89, 132, 201, 271
attitudes toward low-income housing, 29-30, 90-91, 158, 236, 238-239, 242
causes of, 10, 28-29, 30, 118, 151-191, 281-282
federal government role, 28, 175-176
political factors, 28-29, 158, 163, 164-165, 176-178, 254
transportation factors, 28, 159, 160-161
costs of urban decline, 11, 14, 19-20, 35, 36, 71, 127, 192, 288
employment, 22, 33-34, 132, 163-164
discrimination, 5-6, 10, 19, 57, 95, 132
spatial mismatch hypothesis, 5-6, 7-8, 32, 51-52, 57, 61, 67, 216-217, 220-230 (passim)
see also Mobility (workers)
historical perspectives, 24, 28, 153, 154, 157, 158, 159-161, 175, 193, 195, 196
household mobility strategies, 86, 89-91
income segregation/stratification, 7-8, 151, 152, 153-159
inner-ring, 3, 4, 41, 76, 162-163, 170, 192
international perspectives, 29, 118, 151, 153, 162-163, 165, 168, 170, 171
low-income housing, 81-82, 84-85, 89-91, 107, 110, 130
attitudes toward, 29-30, 90-91, 158, 236, 238-239, 242
sprawl and, 151-152, 153, 154-158, 171-172, 176
minorities, 3, 25, 26, 28, 130
property rights, 84-85, 152, 165, 168, 178-182
research recommendations, 118
spatial mismatch hypothesis, 5-6, 7-8, 32, 51-52, 57, 61, 67, 216-217, 220-230 (passim)
spatial opportunity structures, 17, 117
sprawl, 13, 33, 84, 109, 151-191
white flight, 237-238
zoning, 151-191
exclusionary, 8, 11, 12, 16, 21, 29, 30-32, 38, 61, 79-80, 81-82, 89-90, 104, 130, 131, 152, 153-159, 168-169, 175-182, 201, 236-237
inclusionary, 10, 38, 78, 81, 82-84, 130, 176, 177
see also Central-city/suburban disparities;
Commuters and commuting;
Tax/service disparities
T
Taxation, 9
classification of urban problems, 14
central cities' relations with suburbs, 34, 35, 37
commuter taxes, 7, 98, 101, 123, 133, 267, 281-282
enterprise zones, 86-87, 123, 230-233, 234
historical perspectives, 101, 256-267, 282, 288
home owners, advantages, 171-172
income taxes, 34, 77, 101, 133, 172, 173, 255, 256, 260-261, 266, 267, 282, 283-284, 295
local government fragmentation/consolidation, 107-108, 203
local revenues by state and/or type, 256-267
property taxes, 30, 75, 97, 99, 100-101, 102, 169, 173-175, 307
public choice factors, 105
racial/economic segregation, 7
residential segregation, 7, 57
sales taxes, 74, 75, 76, 255, 256, 258, 260, 262-267, 307
speculation and, 173
state policies, general, 8, 175, 255
transportation, 84, 299, 307, 309, 313;
see also "commuter taxes" supra
see also "enterprise zones" supra
Tax/service disparities, 7, 8, 10, 29, 30, 32, 72-77, 95-104, 107, 116, 119-120, 122-123, 132-133, 203, 253-295
children, 75;
see also "education" infra
commuter taxes, 7, 98, 101, 123, 133, 267, 281-282
counties, 255, 262-266, 270, 272, 273, 280-281
crime, 75, 267, 268, 273-274, 280, 286
education, 7, 75, 122, 174-175, 255, 267, 278, 279, 280
equalization aid, 101-103, 123, 125, 133, 268, 278-280, 284;
see also Place-based initiatives
export taxes, 98, 100-101, 266, 283-284;
see also "commuter taxes" supra
federal government, 98, 253, 254, 268, 278, 281, 287-288
fragmentation/consolidation of metropolitan government, 8, 75, 116, 203, 268, 269-272
international perspectives, 287
metropolitan governance, general, 96-98, 99, 107, 254, 277, 278
minority groups, general, 97
political factors, 95-98, 100, 105, 268-269, 270, 271, 272-273, 276-278, 280, 284-285, 288
population size/density, 75, 254, 269, 277
poverty, 73, 76, 97-98, 254, 278, 281
public choice factors, 105-106
regional factors, general, 98, 99, 133, 276
spatial distribution, general, 268-269
state policy, 76, 98, 99, 101, 102-103, 104, 260-267, 277, 278, 280-285;
see also "equalization aid" supra
subsidies and aid, 72, 74, 267;
see also Equalization aid
suburbs, 74-75, 76, 270-271, 281-282, 285;
see also Commuters and commuting
tax-base sharing. 99-100, 268, 274-276, 284;
see also "equalization aid" supra
see also Commuters and commuting
Telecommunications, 33
Interact, 180
Tennessee, 264-265
automobiles, 6, 84, 160-161, 170, 287, 296, 299, 300, 304, 309, 314, 316-318, 319
central-city/suburban disparities, general, 305-306, 307
equity, general, 307-309
federal government, 298-303, 304, 306-307
funding, 298-303, 304, 306-308
historical perspectives, 296-304, 309
housing and, 309
Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act, 111, 274, 288, 304
land use policy, general, 309-310
local government fragmentation/consolidation, 111, 274, 296-310, 318-321
mass transit, 51, 111, 170, 235, 286, 288, 300-306, 307-309
political factors, 300, 305-306, 307-309
see also Mobility (workers)
regional, 111, 274, 277, 296-310, 318-321
special-purpose districts, 274
state policy, 298, 299-300, 306
study at hand, methodology, vii, 13
suburbanization, causes of, 28, 159, 160-161
taxation, 84, 299, 307, 309, 313;
see also Commuters and commuting (commuter tax)
tax/service disparities, 254, 286
worker mobility, 10, 86, 88-89, 94, 95, 123, 131, 132, 227, 235-236
poverty and employment mobility, 10, 86, 88-89, 94, 95, 123, 131, 132, 227, 235-236
spatial mismatch hypothesis, 5-6, 32, 51-52, 56, 57, 61, 67, 89, 216-217, 220-230 (passim)
see also Commuters and commuting
Two-tier governments, 21, 95, 96, 97, 106, 268, 272-274, 287
U
Unemployment, see Employment and unemployment
Unequal opportunity, general, 16-17, 19, 20, 27, 40-78, 69-71, 85-95, 116, 121, 127
exclusionary zoning, 8, 11, 12, 16, 21, 29, 30-32, 38, 61, 79-80, 81-82, 89-90, 104, 130, 131, 201, 236-237
sprawl and, 152, 153-159, 168-169, 175-182
globalization, 18
individualism and equal opportunity, 18
local government fragmentation/consolidation, 8, 65-66
metropolitan governance, 114
national policy, 18
policy options, 79-115
research recommendations, 9, 10, 117, 127, 129-131
spatial opportunity structures, 21, 79-115, 116, 117, 127, 213-252
unemployment, underemployment and low-income, 9, 18, 19
see also Central-city/suburban disparities;
Neighborhood effects;
Poverty;
Racial discrimination;
Residential segregation;
Spatial
distribution factors;
Tax/service disparities
Urban Change and Poverty, vii
Urban Mass Transportation Act, 301
Urbanization economies, 32
Utah, 264-265
V
Virginia, 115, 162, 260, 266-267
Voting Rights Act, 108
Vouchers
housing, 10, 58, 90, 123, 131, 227, 237
W
Washington, D.C., 17, 82, 97-98, 162, 198, 282
Washington State, 266-267, 311
Welfare, 237
neighborhood effects, 54
political factors, 18, 181-182
tax/service disparities, 76-77, 254
see also Low-income housing
Wisconsin, 266-267
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 74-75, 98
Working Class Suburb, 195
World Wide Web, see Internet
Wyoming, 266-267
Z
community development corporations, 88
court cases, 83, 154-155, 158, 165, 168, 174-175, 180-181
see also "exclusionary" infra
38, 61, 79-80, 81-82, 89-90, 104, 130, 131, 201, 236-237
sprawl and, 152, 153-159, 168-169, 175-182
historical perspectives, 153, 154
local government fragmentation/consolidation, 80, 81, 176-177, 180
inclusionary, 10, 38, 78, 81, 82-84, 130, 176, 177
political factors, 158, 163, 164-165, 176-178, 181, 236
property rights, 84-85, 152, 165, 168, 178-182
rural areas, 163-164, 169, 170-171, 172, 175-176
sprawl and, 151-191
subsidies and aid, 30, 82-84, 85, 171-172, 179;
see also "enterprisezones" supra
