A
Acetylcholine, 140
Acocella, Joan, 145
Acoustic memory store, 28
Actinomycin, 231
Action potential, 243
Adaptive behavior, 65
Addiction, drug, 192–195
Age regression, 101
See also Alzheimer’s disease;
Development
Alcohol, 192
Alda, Alan, 7
Alien abduction stories, 152, 170
Allman, John, 216
clinical features, 135, 136–137
diagnosis, 135–138
memory impairment in, 135
treatment, 140–141
Amnesia, 23
dreaming and, 116
functional, in multiple personality disorder, 145
types of, 117–118
See also Anterograde amnesia;
Retrograde amnesia
AMPA, 241
Amputation, 238
adrenaline action in, 181–182
in blindsight, 175–177
in fear response, 170–180
in flashbulb memory, 180
role in social behavior, 171–172, 173
Anderson, John, 89
Anderson, Richard, 254
Animals, nonhuman, 2
anterograde amnesia studies, 122–124
capacity for dreaming, 111
communication abilities, 223–227
conscious awareness in, 41–42, 111
consolidation of memory in, 126–127
enriched environment effects, 83, 85
eye structure and function, 54, 55, 78
face recognition ability, 59–60
fear behaviors, 166
habituation in, 14
imprinting, 77
instrumental learning, 18
life expectancy, 106–107
long-term memory in, 244–247
memory for hidden objects, 66
neurophysiology of working memory, 42–44
numerical abilities, 69–70
pineal gland, 110
place cells, 248–250
probability learning, 22
social behavior, 171–172
Anterograde amnesia, 22–23
animal models, 122–124
definition and manifestations, 2–3, 118, 119–120, 121
eye-blink conditioning and, 236–237
priming effects, 120–121
spared functions, 120
See also specific disorder
genetic basis, 189
treatment, 189–191
Apprehension, span of, 27
APV, 242
Aricept, 141
Asperger’s syndrome, 73, 74–75
Associative learning, 15–16, 235
Associative unlearning, 97–98
Atkinson, Richard, 26
Attention, 25
in Asperger’s syndrome, 75
inattentional blindness, 39
theoretical models of, 35–37
working memory and, 42
Autobiographical memory, 63
false, 150–151
flashbulb memory, 167–170
See also Episodic memory
B
Backward masking, 28
Baddeley, Alan, 42, 45, 95–96, 97, 98
Bandura, Albert, 186
Barnes, Carol, 248
Baudry, Michel, 242
Benzer, Seymour, 246
Benzodiazepines, 190–191
Berger, Theodore, 256
Beta-adrenergic receptors, 181–182, 188–189
Bliss, Tim, 239–240
Brain structure and function, 10, 13, 51
aging effects, 107–108
in Alzheimer’s disease, 139, 140
autism and, 73–76
characteristics of false memories, 159
in conscious awareness, 40
in consolidation of memory, 129
in counting, 69–70
development, 51–52
drug addiction process, 192–195
in dyslexia, 214
educational attainment and, 210–211
electronic stimulation of neurons, 253–258
in emotional learning, 17
in episodic memory, 45
in experiencing emotion, 178–179
in face recognition, 58–60
in fear response, 170–180
hemispheric differences, 204
hormonal receptors, 181–182
individual differences, 49
in inhibition of behavior, 67–69
in instrumental learning, 18
in language and communication, 124–125, 200–201, 204–211, 217–218
long-term potentiation of neurons, 239–242, 247, 249–250
memory molecule concept, 228–230
in memory trace formation, 16
in moral decision making, 195–196
Mozart effect, 84
new neuron formation, 235–237
permanent memory storage, 124–126, 240, 250
in priming memory, 19
in probability learning, 22–23
in reading and writing, 212–213
reward system, 191–192
in salivary conditioning, 15–16
in sensory memory, 29
in sleep and dreaming, 110, 116
temporal lobe amnesia, 118–121
violent behavior and, 48
in visual processing, 55, 78–79, 175–177
See also specific anatomical structure
Brinton, Roberta, 258
Broadbent, Donald, 25
Broca, Paul, 204
Broca’s aphasia, 204
Brown, Allan, 126
Brown, Roger, 168
Bruck, Maggie, 143–144, 147–148, 154
C
Category learning, 21–23, 68–69
Causality, recognition of, 65
Cave, Carolyn, 35
Ceci, Stephen, 143–144, 147–148, 154
Cerebellum, 16
in language use, 208
in motor skill learning, 23
aging effects, 107–108
in conscious awareness, 40
in counting ability, 69–70
in language functions, 204
in motor skill learning, 23
permanent memory storage in, 124–126
plasticity, 239
in priming memory, 19
somatic sensory area, 238–239
structure, 125
synaptic connections, 233–235
Chabris, Christopher, 39
Challenger space shuttle disaster, 168–169
Children
accuracy of children’s memories, 153–154
language acquisition, 199–202
susceptibility to false memories, 154–155
See also Infants;
Recovered memory of child abuse
Chomsky, Noam, 222
Chunking, 31–33
Clark, Robert, 237
Cocaine, 192
Cochlear implants, 82
Conditioning, 61
associative memory and, 235
emotional learning, 17
learning and, 15
Pavlov’s work on, 15–16
phobia treatment, 185–186
in recognition of causality, 65
salivary, 15–16
trace, 236–237
Consciousness
automatic performance of skilled movements, 16–17
dreaming and, 111
implicit memory and, 13, 19–20
learning and, 13, 19–20, 41, 111–114
in nonhuman animals, 41–42
working memory and, 12
Consolidation. See Rehearsal and consolidation
Corticosterone, 180
Crewes, Frederick, 155–156
Cross-modality matching, 57–58
Cue overload principle, 98
Cued recall, 93–94
D
Damasio, Antonio, 173
Damasio, Hanna, 173
Deafness, 82
Dean, John, 6–7
Declarative memory. See Explicit declarative memory
Delayed response test, 43–44, 66–68
Dementia
in Huntington’s disease, 138–139
senile, 102
See also Alzheimer’s disease
Depression therapy, 129–130, 132
Depth of processing, 33
Desensitization, 185–187
Development
brain structure and function, 50–51
infant memory, 60–62
infantile amnesia, 63–64
isolation effects, 85
language and memory, 63–65, 198–202
learning ability, 51–52
memory for hidden objects, 66–69
new neuron formation, 235–237
numerical abilities, 69–70
plasticity of cerebral cortex, 239
strategies to improve cognitive development, 82–85
synapses, 80–82
of theory of mind, 70–72
visual processing, 52, 77–79, 232–233
See also Aging effects;
Children;
Infants
Disgust, 179
Dissociation of explicit and implicit memory systems, 121
Disterhoft, John, 242
Donahue, Anne, 133
Dowling, John, 211
Down’s syndrome, 139
Doyle, Arthur Conan, 86
Dreams/dreaming, 108–109, 111, 114, 115
Drugs, 18
addictive, 192–195
anxiety therapy, 189–191
to block memory formation, 231
for blocking long-term potentiation, 242
to improve memory, 127–129, 140–141, 180–182
learning while intoxicated, 98–99
overdose, 194
Dual Code Theory, 36
Dual-process model of habituation, 244
Dudai, Yadin, 246
Duncan, Carl, 127
Duncan, Isadora, 253
Duration of memory
curve of forgetting, 87–89
development, 61
Dyslexia, 213–215
E
Ebbinghaus, Hermann, 20, 86–87
Electroconvulsive shock, 127, 129–133
Electroencephalography, 253–254
Emotion, 162
brain structures and function in, 178–180
flashbulb memory phenomenon, 167–170, 182
recognition of, in others, 71, 72, 173–175, 178–179
See also Fear
Emotional learning, 17, 24, 63
Endler, Norman, 130
Episodic memory
aging effects, 105
anterograde amnesia manifestations, 120
benzodiazepine effects, 190–191
brain structure and function, 10, 45
characteristics, 8–10
definition, 8
Ethics and morality, 195–196
Event-related potentials, 159
Evolutionary theory, 2, 41, 212, 243
innate fear response, 164–165
language development, 216–219, 220–222
Neanderthals, 221–222
role of fear, 175
vision, 54
Executive functions
central executive concept, 42
Experience, memory of, 1
contextual factors in, 98–99
infant development, 51–52
neuronal storage, 233–234
vs. memory of learned facts, 10
See also Episodic memory
Explicit declarative memory, 8–12, 19
brain structure and function, 10
definition, 8
two-store model, 26
Eye-blink conditioning, 16–17, 236
trace conditioning, 236–237
F
Face recognition, 33
brain structure and function in, 58–60
Facial expression recognition amygdala function and, 173–175, 177–179
autism and, 73–76
disgust, recognition of, 179
McGurk effect, 217
visual processing for, 177
association effects in creation of, 148–150
autobiographical, 150–151
characteristics of, 158–159
children’s susceptibility to, 154–155
current scientific understanding, 148, 156–161
duration, 148
implanted, 7
infantile amnesia and, 63–64
interviewing techniques and formation of, 142–143, 153, 154–156
misinformation effects, 142–143, 156–158
normal accuracy of children’s memories, 153–155
personality characteristics and susceptibility to, 151–153
retroactive interference to produce, 142–143
role of pictures in formation of, 151
See also Recovered memory of child abuse
biological manifestations, 171, 172, 173
conditioned, 17, 163–164, 166–167, 178
flashbulb memory and, 170
hormonal response, 180–182
as innate response, 164–167, 178
neurophysiology of, 170–180
Fink, Max, 131
Fisher, Ronald, 103
Flashbacks, 188
Flashbulb memory, 167–170, 180, 182
Flies, 245–247
Forgetting
accuracy of children’s memories, 153–155
accuracy of flashbulb memories, 167–170
act of remembering as cause of, 27
causes of, 95
context factors in, 98–99, 103
curve of, 87–89
degree of original learning and, 89–90
electroconvulsive shock therapy effects, 130–133
hypnosis to improve recall, 99–102
as inability to locate stored information, 86–87, 92–95
massed vs. distributed practice in, 90–92
mood effects, 98
proactive interference and, 97
as repression, 146–147
retroactive interference and, 86, 95–98
state dependency effects, 98–99
Forms of memory, 7–8.
See also specific form
Freeman, John, 235
Freud, Sigmund, 63, 146, 155–156
Functional magnetic resonance imaging, 21
Fuster, Joachim, 44
G
Gage, Fred, 236
Gage, Phineas, 46
Gallistel, Charles, 69
Gardner, Beatrice, 225
Gardner, Robert, 225
Geiselman, Edward, 103
Gelman, Rachel, 69
Gene knockouts, 247
Generalized anxiety disorder, 189
Genetics
aging and, 107
Alzheimer’s disease, 139–140
in anxiety disorders, 189
in brain structure and function, 49
dyslexia, 214
gene structure, 220
genetic engineering prospects, 251–253
Huntington’s disease, 138–139, 179
innate fear responses, 166–167
language ability and, 73, 219–222
learning ability and, 252
long-term memory formation, 247
memory storage in RNA/DNA, 229–230
protein synthesis, 230–231
stuttering, 215
variation in amygdala function, 172–173, 175
Gluck, Mark, 22–23
Glucose, 128
Goldman-Rakic, Patricia, 44, 47
Gonsalves, Brian, 159
Gould, Elizabeth, 236
Greenough, William, 234
Grief counseling, 188
Groves, Philip, 244
Guided imagery, 155
Guiness World Records, 3–4
H
Haber, Ralph, 34
definition, 51–52
Haptic store, 28
Hard-wired behavior, 2
Hearing, 28
fetal and infant development, 52, 56, 81–82
Hebb, Donald, 77, 102, 104, 115, 191
Hebb-Melton effect, 34
Hemispheric encoding-retrieval asymmetry, 134
Herrnstein, Richard, 22
aging effects, 108
amnesia related to damage to, 119–120, 124, 236–237.
See also Anterograde amnesia
anatomy, 119
computational model, 256
dreaming and, 116
electronic stimulation/control of, 256–258
in fear response, 178
place neurons, 113–114, 248–250
in priming memory, 19
in probability learning, 22–23
role in memory formation, 240
Hormonal system, 180–182
Hubel, David, 78
Huntington’s disease, 138–139, 179
Huttchenlocker, Peter, 80–81
Hypnagogic images, 115–116
Hypnosis, 99–102
I
Iconic memory, 28
Immediate memory, 25
Implicit procedural memory
associative learning, 15–16
definition and characteristics, 13
emotional learning, 17
eye-blink conditioning, 16–17
function, 13
habituation, 14–15
instrumental learning, 17–18
priming memory, 18–20
probability and category learning, 21–23
skill learning, 23
Imprinting, 77
Improving memory, strategies for
chunking, 32–33
enriched environment, 83–85
facilitating consolidation, 127–128, 180–182
hypnosis, 99–102
mind’s eye technique, 36
rhyming peg word method, 36
Infants
awareness of cause and effect, 65
brain development, 50–51
capacity to learn, 51–52, 57–62
habituation response, 14, 51–52
imitative behavior, 61–62
imprinting, 77
language acquisition, 199, 201–202
memory for hidden objects, 66–69
numerical abilities, 69–70
object recognition, 65
phenylketonuria diagnosis, 252–253
strategies to improve cognitive development, 82–85
See also Children
Inhibition of behavior, 46–47, 67–69
Instincts, 2
Instrumental learning, 17–18
Intelligence
aging effects, 104
enriched environment effects, 83–85
genetic engineering to improve, 253
musical training and, 82–83
susceptibility to false memory and, 152
working memory and, 48–49
Interference Theory of Forgetting, 86, 95–98, 113, 142–143
J
Jacobsen, C. F., 42–43
James, William, 25
K
Kennedy assassination, 167–168
Keppel, Geoffrey, 90–91
Ketcham, Katherine, 155
Kleim, Jeffrey, 235
Knowlton, Barbara, 22–23
Kuhn, Patricia, 198
L
average English vocabulary, 203
brain structures involved in, 124–125, 200–201, 204–211, 218–219
categories of words, 208
clicking languages, 219
communication among animals, 223–227
complexity of communication process, 197–198
critical period for learning, 211–212
disconnection syndrome, 206
early development, 198–202
human evolution and, 216–219, 220–222
infantile amnesia and, 63–65
learning, 222–223
neurophysiology of verbal memory, 44–45
reading and writing ability, 212–215
significance of, 197
structural units, 202–203
stuttering, 215
Lashley, Karl, 127
Law enforcement
uses of Cognitive Interview, 103
uses of hypnosis, 99–100, 101–102
Learning, 2
anterograde amnesia manifestations, 3
autism and, 76
automatic performance of skilled movements, 16–17
brain reward system in, 191–192
chunking and, 32
conditioning and, 15
conscious awareness and, 13, 19–20, 41
consolidation theory, 127
in drug addiction process, 194
drugs to prevent, 231
emotional, 17
fear as learned response, 163–164, 166–167, 178
fetal development and, 51, 52–57
forgetting and, 89–90
genetic factors in, 252
implicit memory and, 13
incidental, 19–20
individual development and, 51–52
infant capacity, 57–62
instrumental, 17–18
language, 199–202, 211–212, 222–223
long-term potentiation in, 250
massed and distributed practice in, 90–92
moral values and, 195–196
neuron formation and, 237
priming memory in, 18–20
probability and category learning, 21–23
semantic memory, 8
sleep and, 111–114
state dependency effects, 98–99
use of mental imagery in, 35, 36
vs. memory of experience, 10
Leshner, Alan, 195
Librium, 189–190
Life expectancy, 106–107
Lockhart, Robert, 33
Loftus, Elizabeth, 7, 142–143, 146, 148, 155
Lømo, Terje, 239–240
Long-term memory, 24
aging effects, 23
animal models, 244–247
brain structure and function in, 124–126, 129, 240
capacity, 34–35
content, 1
depth of processing, 33
inability to form new memories, 2–3
long-term potentiation in formation of, 250
two-store model, 31–33
Long-term potentiation, 239–242, 247, 249–250
Lorenz, Konrad, 77
Lovaas, Ivor, 76
Luria, Alexander, 4–5
Lynch, Gary, 242
M
Machizawa, Maro, 29
Magnetic resonance imaging, 21
Mahadevan, Rajan, 3–4
Maintenance rehearsal, 31
Marler, Peter, 223
Marois, Rene, 29
Massaro, Dominic, 217
Matching law, 22
McCloskey, Michael, 156–157, 158
McGaugh, James, 179–180, 181, 182
McGurk effect, 217
McNaughton, Bruce, 113, 114, 248
Melatonin, 110–111
Merzenich, Michael, 214–215, 238
Milner, Brenda, 44
Milner, Peter, 191
Mind’s eye, 36
Mirror cells, 216
Mishkin, Mortimer, 122
Mnemonist, 3–4
Morphemes, 202–203
Morris, Richard, 242
Motor skills
electronic stimulation of motor neurons, 254–256
neurophysiology of learning, 16–17, 23
Mozart effect, 82–83
Multiple personality disorder, 145
Munch, Edvard, 177
Musical training, 82–83
N
Neanderthals, 221–222
Neisser, Ulrich, 6, 39, 168, 169
Newport, Elissa, 211–212
Nicolelis, Miguel, 254
Nilsson, Lars-Goran, 105
Nixon, Richard, 6–7
Nucleic acids, 230–231
Nucleotides, 220
Nucleus accumbens, 192
Numerical abilities, 69–70
O
Ojemann, George, 213
Olds, James, 191
Olfactory learning, 77
Olfactory sensory store, 28
P
Paine, Adrian, 48
Paivio, Allan, 36
Paller, Ken, 159
Panic disorder, 189
Paralysis, 255
Parietal cortex, 29
in working memory, 44–45
Perfect pitch, 82
Perkins, William, 215
Pezdek, Kathy, 151
Phenylketonuria, 252–253
Phonemes, 202
Photoreceptors, 54
Pineal gland, 110
Place neurons, 113–114, 248–250
Pleasure system, 18
Positron emission tomography, 20–21
Post-traumatic stress disorder, 152–153, 183, 187–189
Prefrontal cortex
in inhibition of behavior, 67–69
synapse development, 82
in working memory, 42–44, 45–48, 49
Primary memory, 25
Priming effects, 35
in anterograde amnesia, 120–121
Probability learning, 21–23
Prosopagnosia, 59
Proteins
in memory formation, 231
storage of memories in, 228–230
synthesis, 230–231
Purkinje neurons, 79–80
aging effects, 108
Q
Quinn, Chip, 246
R
Rabinowitz, Dorothy, 144–145
Raichle, Marcus, 19
Rapid eye movement, 111
Rayner, Rosalie, 163
Reading skills, 212–215
Recall memory, 62
Recovered memory of child abuse, 143–145, 160
creation of, 150–151
popular misconceptions regarding, 145–148
psychoanalytic theory and, 155–156
See also False memories
Reflexes, 2
Rehearsal and consolidation
brain structures involved in, 129
retrograde amnesia and, 126–127, 131
in sleep, 113–114
strategies for facilitating, 127–129, 180–182
theory of, 126
Repetition priming, 120–121
Repressed memory, 146–147, 152–153
Retrieval of information
brain structure and function in, 45–46
cues, 93–94
Retrograde amnesia, 118
consolidation of memory and, 126–127, 131
electroconvulsive shock effects, 127–133
Rhesus monkeys, 122
Rhyming peg word method of memorization, 36
Rizzolatti, Giacomo, 216
Rohypnol, 191
Rovee-Collier, Carolyn, 60–61
Rozenzweig, Mark, 234
Rumbaugh, Duane, 227
S
Sack, Robert, 110
Salivary conditioning, 15–16
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 115
Saufley, William, 99
Savage-Rumbaugh, Sue, 227
Scheibel, Arnold, 210
Schiffrin, Richard, 26
Schwartzkroin, Philip, 242
Scoville, William, 118
Self-awareness, 71–72
Semantic memory
aging effects, 105–106
anterograde amnesia manifestations, 120
brain structure and function, 10
definition, 8
Semantics, 203
Sensory memories, two-store model, 26–29
September 11 terrorist attacks, 169–170, 188
Serial position effect, 30, 41
Shallice, Timothy, 45
Shaw, George Bernard, 253
Shimamura, Arthur, 45
Short-term memory, 25
definition and characteristics, 10–12, 24
recency effect, 30–31
strategies for improving, 32–33
visual processes, 27–28
See also Working memory
Siegel, Bryna, 75
Silva, Alcino, 247
Simons, Daniel, 39
Sleep
biological purpose, 109
capacity to learn in, 111–114
disruption effects, 112–113
dreaming and, 111
memory and, 108–109
neurophysiology, 110
rehearsal of learned material in, 113–114
wake-sleep cycle, 109–110
Smell, 28
Smith, Marilyn, 101
Snails, 244–245
Social learning, 71
Somatic sensory area, 238–239
Source memory, 45
Span of apprehension, 27
intelligence and, 48–49
Sperling, George, 27–28
Squire, Larry, 8, 19, 22–23, 124, 131, 237
Standing, Lionel, 34
State dependency effects, 98–99
Stein, Donald, 229
Stem cells, 235–236
Stimulus response
habituation, 14–15
instrumental learning, 17–18
See also Conditioning
in motor skill learning, 23
in probability learning, 22–23
Strychnine, 128
Stuttering, 215
Suppes, Patrick, 254
Suppression, 146
Suprachiasmatic nucleus, 110
Synapses, 79–82
long-term sensitization, 244–245
in memory formation, 231–235
synaptic depression, 243–244
Syntax, 203
T
Tacrine, 140–141
Tallal, Paula, 214–215
Task A and not B, 67
Temporal lobe, 218
amnesia. See Anterograde amnesia
in probability learning, 22–23
Teyler, Timothy, 242
Theory of mind, 70–72
autism and, 73–76
Three Faces of Eve, 145, 146–147
Todd, Jay, 29
Tolerance, drug, 194
Tomoyoni, Hideaki, 4
Toscanini, Arturo, 5–6
Touch, 28
Trace conditioning, 236–237
Transcranial magnetic stimulation, 133–135
Transplanted memories, 228–230
Trauma experience, 24
flashbulb memory, 167–170
phobia resulting from, 183–185
post-traumatic stress disorder, 151–153, 183, 187–189
psychological interventions after, 188
repressed memory of, 146–147
See also Recovered memory of child abuse
Treisman, Anne, 37
Tsien, Joe, 252
Tully, Tim, 246
Two-store model of memory, 26, 42
long-term store, 31–33
sensory memories, 26–29
Tyron, Robert, 252
U
Urbach-Weithe disease, 172–173, 182
V
Ventral premotor area, 216
Violent behavior, 48
Visual processes, 165
amygdala function and, 175–177
attention and memory in, 37–39
eye structure and function, 53–55
fetal and infant development, 52, 77–79
limits of memory, 27–28
long-term memory formation, 34–35, 36, 125–126
neurophysiology of short-term memory, 45
span of apprehension, 26–27
synaptic connections in, 232–233
synaptogenesis and, 81
wake-sleep cycle and, 110
Visuospatial sketchpad, 42, 45
Vogel, Edward, 29
Volkmar, Fred, 74
Voltage-gated channels, 242
W
Wade, K., 151
Warrington, Elizabeth, 45, 124–125, 208
Watergate scandal, 6–7
Watkins, Michael, 98
Watson, John, 163
Weather forecasting, 22
Weiskrantz, Larry, 40
Wernicke, Carl, 205
Wernicke’s area, 206–207, 211, 214
West, Mark, 108
Wiesel, Torsten, 78
Wilson, Matthew, 113, 114, 248, 249
Winner, Michelle, 74
Wisconsin card-sorting task, 68–69
Withdrawal, drug, 194
Woodruff-Pak, Diana, 137–138
brain structure and function in, 42–48
conscious awareness and, 42
intelligence and, 48–49
multicomponent model, 42
in schizophrenia, 47
testing, 43–44
two-store model, 42
Wright, Anthony, 41
Z
Zhong-lin Lu, 254
Zola, Stuart, 124