AAPIData, APIAVote, & Asian Americans Advancing Justice. (2020, September 15). 2020 Asian American voter survey. https://www.advancingjustice-aajc.org/report/2020-asian-american-voter-survey
Abalakina-Paap, M., Stephan, W. G., Craig, T., & Gregory, W. L. (1999). Beliefs in conspiracies. Political Psychology, 20(3), 637–647. https://doi.org/10.1111/0162-895X.00160
Abbott, R. (2007). Putting complex systems to work. Complexity, 13(2), 30–49. https://doi.org/10.1002/cplx.20200
Abella, B. S., Jolkovsky, E. L., Biney, B. T., Uspal, J. E., Hyman, M. C., Frank, I., Hensley, S. E., Gill, S., Vogl, D. T., Maillard, I., Babushok, D. V., Huang, A. C., Nasta, S. D., Walsh, J. C., Wiletyo, E. P., Gimotty, P. A., Milone, M. C., & Amaravadi, R. K. (2021). Efficacy and safety of hydroxychloroquine vs placebo for pre-exposure SARS-CoV-2 prophylaxis among health care workers: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Internal Medicine, 181(2), 195–202. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.6319
Abernathy, P. M. (n.d.). Do you live in a news desert? U.S. News Deserts. UNC Hussman School of Journalism and Media, Knight Foundation. https://www.usnewsdeserts.com/
___. (2018). The expanding news desert. The Center for Innovation and Sustainability in Local Media, School of Media and Journalism, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. https://www.cislm.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/The-Expanding-News-Desert-10_14-Web.pdf
Abroms, L. C., Koban, D., Krishnan, N., Napolitano, M., Simmens, S., Caskey, B., Wu, T. C., & Broniatowski, D. A. (2024). Empathic engagement with the COVID-19 vaccine hesitant in private Facebook groups: A randomized trial. Health Education & Behavior, 51(1), 10–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/10901981231188313
Abualsaud, M., & Smucker, M. D. (2019). Exposure and order effects of misinformation on health search decisions. In Proceedings of the 42nd International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval. Association for Computing Machinery. https://rome2019.github.io/papers/Abualsaud_Smucker_ROME2019.pdf
Adams, R. C., Challenger, A., Bratton, L., Boivin, J., Bott, L., Powell, G., Williams, A., Chambers, C. C., & Sumner, P. (2019). Claims of causality in health news: A randomised trial. BMC Medicine, 17(19), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-019-1324-7
Adams, Z., Osman, M., Bechlivanidis, C., & Meder, B. (2023). (Why) is misinformation a problem? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(6), 1436–1463. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221141344
Agley, J., Xiao, Y., Thompson, E. E., Chen, X., & Golzarri-Arroyo, L. (2021). Intervening on trust in science to reduce belief in COVID-19 misinformation and increase COVID-19 preventive behavioral intentions: Randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23(10), e32425. https://doi.org/10.2196/32425
Aikenhead, G. S. (2006). Science education for everyday life: Evidence-based practice. Teachers College Press.
Aikin, K. J., Betts, K. R., O’Donoghue, A. C., Rupert, D. J., Lee, P. K., Amoozegar, J. B., & Southwell, B. G. (2015). Correction of overstatement and omission in direct-to-consumer prescription drug advertising. Journal of Communication, 65(4), 596–618. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12167
Aikin, K. J., Southwell, B. G., Paquin, R. S., Rupert, D. J., O’Donoghue, A. C., Betts, K. R., & Lee, P. K. (2017). Correction of misleading information in prescription drug television advertising: The roles of advertisement similarity and time delay. Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy, 13(2), 378–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2016.04.004
Ajzen, I. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Frequently asked questions. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, 2(4), 314–324. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.195
Albertson, B., & Guiler, K. (2020). Conspiracy theories, election rigging, and support for democratic norms. Research & Politics, 7(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168020959859
Aldrich, D. P., & Meyer, M. A. (2015). Social capital and community resilience. American Behavioral Scientist, 59(2), 254–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764214550299
Ali, K., Li, C., Zain-ul-abdin, K., & Muqtadir, S. A. (2022). The effects of emotions, individual attitudes towards vaccination, and social endorsements on perceived fake news credibility and sharing motivations. Computers in Human Behavior, 134, 107307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107307
Ali, S., Saeed, M. H., Aldreabi, E., Blackburn, J., De Cristofaro, E., Zannettou, S., & Stringhini, G. (2021, June). Understanding the effect of deplatforming on social networks. 13th ACM Web Science Conference 2021, 187–195. https://doi.org/10.1145/3447535.3462637
Allcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social media and fake news in the 2016 election. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(2), 211–236. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.31.2.211
Allen J., Arechar, A. A., Pennycook, G., Rand, & D. G. (2021). Scaling up fact-checking using the wisdom of crowds. Science Advances, 7(36), Article eabf4393.
Allen, J., Howland, B., Mobius, M., Rothschild, D., & Watts, D. J. (2020). Evaluating the fake news problem at the scale of the information ecosystem. Science Advances, 6(14), eaay3539. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aay3539
Allen, J., Martel, C., & Rand, D. G. (2022, April 29–May 5). Birds of a feather don’t fact-check each other: Partisanship and the evaluation of news in Twitter’s Birdwatch crowdsourced fact-checking program. Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. New Orleans, LA, US. ACM. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/57e3q
Allen, J., Watts, D. J., & Rand, D. G. (2024). Quantifying the impact of misinformation and vaccine-skeptical content on Facebook. Science, 384(6699), Article eadk3451. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adk3451
Allport, G. W., & Postman, L. (1946). An analysis of rumor. Public Opinion Quarterly, 10(4), 501–517.
Almodt, R. (2024). From criticism to conspiracies: The populist discourse of COVID-19 sceptics in Germany’s Querdenken community on Telegram. Discourse & Society, 35(1), 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/09579265231191971
Altay, S. (2022, May 30). How effective are interventions against misinformation? PsyArXiv https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/sm3vk
Altay, S., Berriche, M., Heuer, H., Farkas, J., & Rathje, S. (2023). A survey of expert views on misinformation: Definitions, determinants, solutions, and future of the field. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 4(4). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-119
Altay, S., Kleis Nielsen, R., & Fletcher, R. (2022). Quantifying the “infodemic”: People turned to trustworthy news outlets during the 2020 coronavirus pandemic. Journal of Quantitative Description: Digital Media, 2. https://doi.org/10.51685/jqd.2022.020
Altay, S., Majima, Y., & Mercier, H. (2020). It’s my idea! Reputation management and idea appropriation. Evolution and Human Behavior, 41(3), 235–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2020.03.004
Alvarez, A., Caliskan, A., Crockett, M. J., Ho, S. S., Messeri, L., & West, J. (2024). Science communication with generative AI. Nature Human Behaviour, 8(4), 625–627. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-024-01846-3
Amanullah, S., & Ramesh Shankar, R. (2020, October). The impact of COVID-19 on physician burnout globally: A review. Healthcare, 8(4), 421. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare8040421
Amazeen, M. A. (2020). Journalistic interventions: The structural factors affecting the global emergence of fact-checking. Journalism, 21(1), 95–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884917730217
American Board of Obstetrics & Gynecology. (2021, September 27). Statement regarding dissemination of COVID-19 misinformation. https://www.abog.org/about-abog/news-announcements/2021/09/27/statement-regarding-dissemination-of-covid-19-misinformation
___. (2022, July 7). Statement regarding misinformation and disinformation and medical professionalism. https://www.abog.org/about-abog/news-announcements/2022/07/07/statement-regarding-misinformation-and-disinformation-and-medical-professionalism
Anderson, C. (2021). Propaganda, misinformation, and histories of media techniques. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-64
Anderson, S. J. (2011). Marketing of menthol cigarettes and consumer perceptions: a review of tobacco industry documents. Tobacco Control, 20 (Suppl 2), ii20–28. https://doi.org/10.1136/tc.2010.041939
Angel, M. P., & boyd, d. (2024). Techno-legal solutionism: Regulating children’s online safety in the United States. In Proceedings of the Symposium on Computer Science and Law. https://doi.org/10.1145/3614407.3643705
Apollonio, D. E., & Malone, R. E. (2005). Marketing to the marginalised: Tobacco industry targeting of the homeless and mentally ill. Tobacco Control, 14(6), 409–415. https://doi.org/10.1136/tc.2005.011890
Appel, M., & Malečkar, B. (2012). The influence of paratext on narrative persuasion: Fact, fiction, or fake? Human Communication Research, 38(4), 459–484. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2012.01432.x
Apuke, O. D., & Omar, B. (2021). User motivation in fake news sharing during the COVID-19 pandemic: An application of the uses and gratification theory. Online Information Review, 45(1), 220–239. https://doi.org/10.1108/OIR-03-2020-0116
Ard, C. F., & Natowicz, M. R. (2001). A seat at the table: Membership in federal advisory committees evaluating public policy in genetics. American Journal of Public Health, 91(5), 787. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.91.5.787
Ardèvol-Abreu, A., Delponti, P., & Rodríguez-Wangüemert, C. (2020). Intentional or inadvertent fake news sharing? Fact-checking warnings and users’ interaction with social media content. Profesional de la Información, 29(5). https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2020.sep.07
Arguedas, A. R., Robertson, C. T., Fletcher, R., & Nielsen, R. K. (2022, January). Echo chambers, filter bubbles, and polarisation: A literature review. Reuters Institute. https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/echo-chambers-filter-bubbles-and-polarisation-literature-review
Armstrong, D. (2019, November 19). Inside Purdue Pharma’s media playbook: How it planted the opioid ‘anti-story. ProPublica. https://www.propublica.org/article/inside-purdue-pharma-media-playbook-how-it-planted-the-opioid-anti-story
Armstrong, G. M., Gurol, M. N., & Russ, F. A. (1983). A Longitudinal evaluation of the Listerine corrective advertising campaign. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 2(1), 16–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/074391568300200102
Aronczyk, M. (2022, Feb. 17). How PR firms captured the sustainability agenda. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/02/17/climate-crisis-activism-edelman-pr-sustainability/
Aronczyk, M., & Espinoza, M. I. (2021). A strategic nature: Public relations and the politics of American environmentalism. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190055349.001.0001
Aronczyk, M., McCurdy, P., & Russill, C. (2024) Greenwashing, net-zero, and the oil sands in Canada: The case of Pathways Alliance. Energy Research & Social Science, 112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2024.103502
Arvin, M. (2019) Possessing Polynesians: The science of settler colonial whiteness in Hawai‘i and Oceania. Duke University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv11312hc
Asch, S. E. (1951). Effects of group pressure upon the modification and distortion of judgments. In H. Guetzkow (Ed.), Groups, leadership and men; research in human relations (pp. 177–190). Carnegie Press.
Ash, E., Galletta, S., Hangartner, D., Margalit, Y., & Pinna, M. (2024). The effect of Fox News on health behavior during COVID-19. Political Analysis, 32(2), 275–284. https://doi.org/10.1017/pan.2023.21
Asian American Disinformation Table. (2022). Power, platforms, politics: Asian Americans and disinformation landscape report. https://www.asianamdisinfo.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/AsianAmDisinformation_LandscapeReport2022.pdf
Aslett, K., Guess, A. M., Bonneau, R., Nagler, J., & Tucker, J. A. (2022). News credibility labels have limited average effects on news diet quality and fail to reduce misperceptions. Science Advances, 8(18), Article eabl3844. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abl3844
Attari, S. Z., DeKay, M. L., Davidson, C. I., & Bruine de Bruin, W. (2010). Public perceptions of energy consumption and savings. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(37), 16054–16059. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1001509107
Aufderheide, P., Jaszi, P., & Chandra, M. (2009, September). Honest truths: Documentary filmmakers on ethical challenges in their work. Center for Media & Social Impact, American University. https://cmsimpact.org/resource/honest-truths-documentary-filmmakers-on-ethical-challenges-in-their-work/
Augenstein, I., Baldwin, T., Cha, M., Chakraborty, T., Ciampaglia, G. L., Corney, D., DiResta, R., Ferrara, E., Hale, S., Halevy, A., Hovy, E., Ji, H., Menczer, F., Miguez, R., Nakov, P., Scheufele, D., Sharma, S., & Zagni, G. (2024). Factuality challenges in the era of large language models and opportunities for fact-checking. Nature Machine Intelligence, 6(8), 852–863. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42256-024-00881-z
Auxier, B., & Anderson, M. (2021, April 7). Social media use in 2021. Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2021/04/07/social-media-use-in-2021/
Avital, M., Baiyere, A., Dennis, A., Gibbs, J., & Te’eni, D. (2020). Fake news: What is it and why does it matter? Academy of Management Proceedings, 2020(1), 20014. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMBPP.2020.20014symposium
Avraamidou, L. (2022). Identities in/out of physics and the politics of recognition. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 59(1), 58–94. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21721
Ayoob, K.-T., Duyff, R. L., & Quagliani, D. (2002). Position of the American Dietetic Association: Food and nutrition misinformation. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 102(2), 260–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(02)90062-3
Bächtiger, A., Dryzek, J. S., Mansbridge, J., & Warren, M. E. (Eds.). (2018). The Oxford handbook of deliberative democracy. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198747369.001.0001
Baghdadi, J. D., Coffey, K. C., Belcher, R., Frisbie, J., Hassan, N., Sim, D., & Malik, R. D. (2023). #Coronavirus on TikTok: User engagement with misinformation as a potential threat to public health behavior. JAMIA Open, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/jamiaopen/ooad013
Bailey, D. H., Jung, A. J., Beltz, A. M., Eronen, M. I., Gische, C., Hamaker, E. L., Kording, K. P., Lebel, C., Lindquist, M. A., Moeller, J., Razi, A., Rohrer, J. M., Zhang, B., & Murayama, K. (2024). Causal inference on human behaviour. Nature Human Behaviour, 8(8), 1448–1459. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-024-01939-z
Bailey, Z. (2024). Race, health, and equity: Integrating concepts of social justice into health behavior models. In K. Glanz, B. K. Rimer, & K. Viswanath (Eds.), Health behavior: Theory, research, and practice (6th ed., pp. 174–183). Jossey-Bass.
Bailey, Z. D., Krieger, N., Agénor, M., Graves, J., Linos, N., & Bassett, M. T. (2017). Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: Evidence and interventions. Lancet, 389(10077), 1453–1463. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30569-X
Bailin, D., Goldman, G., & Phartiyal, P. (2014, May). Sugar-coating science: How the food industry misleads consumers on sugar. Center for Science and Democracy, Union of Concerned Scientists. https://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/files/2019-09/sugar-coating-science.pdf
Bajaj, S. S., & Stanford, F. C. (2021). Beyond Tuskegee — Vaccine distrust and everyday racism. The New England Journal of Medicine, 384(5), e12. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMpv2035827
Bak-Coleman, J. B., Kennedy, I., Wack, M., Beers, A., Schafer, J. S., Spiro, E. S., Starbird, K., & West, J. D. (2022). Combining interventions to reduce the spread of viral misinformation. Nature Human Behaviour, 6(10), 1372–1380. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-022-01388-6
Baker, S., & Martinson, D. L. (2001). The TARES Test: Five principles for ethical persuasion. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 16(2–3), 148–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/08900523.2001.9679610
Baker, S. A. (2022). Alt. health influencers: How wellness culture and web culture have been weaponized to promote conspiracy theories and far-right extremism during the COVID-19 pandemic. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 25(1), 3–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/13675494211062623
Baker, S. A., McLaughlin, E., & Rojek, C. (2024). Simple solutions to wicked problems: Cultivating true believers of anti-vaccine conspiracies during the COVID-19 pandemic. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 27(4), 577–596. https://doi.org/10.1177/13675494231173536
Baker, S. A., & Rojek, C. (2020, February 20). The online wellness industry: Why it’s so difficult to regulate. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/the-online-wellness-industry-why-its-so-difficult-to-regulate-131847
Bakshy, E., Messing, S., & Adamic, L. A. (2015). Exposure to ideologically diverse news and opinion on Facebook. Science, 348(6239), 1130–1132. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa1160
Baleta, A. (1999). South Africa’s AIDS care thrown into confusion. The Lancet, 354(9191), 1711. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)76703-9
Ballard, C., Goldstein, I., Mehta, P., Smothers, G., Take, K., Zhong, V., Greenstadt, R., Lauinger, T., & McCoy, D. (2022). Conspiracy brokers: Understanding the monetization of YouTube conspiracy theories. In Proceedings of the ACM Web Conference 2022 (pp. 2707–2718). https://doi.org/10.1145/3485447.3512142
Banas, J. A., Palomares, N. A., Richards, A. S., Keating, D. M., Joyce, N., & Rains, S. A. (2022). When machine and bandwagon heuristics compete: Understanding users’ response to conflicting AI and crowdsourced fact-checking. Human Communication Research, 48(3), 430–461. https://doi.org/10.1093/hcr/hqac010
Bandy, J. (2021). Problematic machine behavior: A systematic literature review of algorithm audits. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 5, Article 74. https://doi.org/10.1145/3449148
Barnes, D. E., Hanauer, P., Slade, J., Bero, L. A., & Glantz, S. A. (1995). Environmental tobacco smoke. The Brown and Williamson documents. JAMA, 274(3), 248–253. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.274.3.248
Barnidge, M., & Xenos, M.A. (2021). Social media news deserts: Digital inequalities and incidental news exposure on social media platforms. New Media & Society, 26(1), 368–388. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448211059529
Baron, R. J. (2022, May 18). Standing up for the profession, protecting the public: Why ABIM is combatting medical misinformation. American Board of Internal Medicine. https://blog.abim.org/standing-up-for-the-profession-and-public-why-abim-is-combatting-medical-misinformation/
Baron, R. J., & Ejnes, Y. D. (2022). Physicians spreading misinformation on social media—Do right and wrong answers still exist in medicine? The New England Journal of Medicine, 387(1), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp2204813
Barthel, M., Mitchell, A., & Holcomb, J. (2016, December 15). Many Americans believe fake news is sowing confusion. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/2016/12/15/many-americans-believe-fake-news-is-sowing-confusion/
Bartholomew, R. E. (2014). Science for sale: the rise of predatory journals. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 107(10), 384–385. https://doi.org/10.1177/0141076814548526
Barton, H. A. (1934). Science in the public press. Review of Scientific Instruments, 5(11), 386. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1751756
Basch, C. H., Meleo-Erwin, Z., Fera, J., Jaime, C., & Basch, C. E. (2021). A global pandemic in the time of viral memes: COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and disinformation on TikTok. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, 17(8), 2373–2377. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2021.1894896
Basol, M., Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2020). Good news about bad news: Gamified inoculation boosts confidence and cognitive immunity against fake news. Journal of Cognition, 3(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.5334/joc.91
Baum, L. M. (2012). It’s not easy being green… or is it? A content analysis of environmental claims in magazine advertisements from the United States and United Kingdom. Environmental Communication: A Journal of Nature and Culture, 6(4), 423–440. https://doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2012.724022
Beard, M. (2022, November 23). Covid is no longer mainly a pandemic of the unvaccinated. Here’s why. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/11/23/vaccinated-people-now-make-up-majority-covid-deaths/
Bebinger, M. (2021, April 27). Pandemic imperiled Non-English speakers more than others. KFF Health News. https://kffhealthnews.org/news/article/pandemic-imperiled-non-english-speakers-more-than-others/
Bedford, D. (2010). Agnotology as a teaching tool: Learning climate science by studying misinformation. Journal of Geography, 109(4), 159–165. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2010.498121
Béna, J., Rihet, M., Carreras, O., & Terrier, P. (2023). Repetition could increase the perceived truth of conspiracy theories. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 30(6), 2397–2406. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-023-02276-4
Benestad, R. E., Nuccitelli, D., Lewandowsky, S., Hayhoe, K., Hygen, H. O., Van Dorland, R., & Cook, J. (2016). Learning from mistakes in climate research. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 126(3), 699–703.
Bennett, W. L. (1990). Toward a theory of press-state. Journal of Communication, 40(2), 103–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1990.tb02265.x
Bennett, W. L., & Livingston, S. (2018). The disinformation order: Disruptive communication and the decline of democratic institutions. European Journal of Communication, 33(2), 122–139. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323118760317
Bergner, D., & Vasconez, K. C. (2012). Expanding role of public works in emergency management. Leadership and Management in Engineering, 12(3), 126–133. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)LM.1943-5630.0000174
Bergstrom, C. T., & West, J. D. (2023). How publishers can fight misinformation in and about science and medicine. Nature Medicine, 29(9), 2174–2176. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-023-02411-7
Berinsky, A. J. (2023). Political rumors: Why we accept misinformation and how to fight it. Princeton University Press.
Berkman, N. D., Davis, T. C., & McCormack, L. (2010). Health literacy: What is it? Journal of Health Communication, 15(S2), 9–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2010.499985
Berkman, N. D., Sheridan, S. L., Donahue, K. E., Halpern, D. J., & Crotty, K. (2011). Low health literacy and health outcomes: an updated systematic review. ANNALS of Internal Medicine, 155(2), 97–107.
Bernays, E. L. (1928). Propoganda. Liveright Publishing Corporation.
Beskow, L. M. (2016). Lessons from HeLa cells: The ethics and policy of biospecimens. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 17, 395–417. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genom-083115-022536
Besley, J. C. (2018). The National Science Foundation’s science and technology survey and support for science funding, 2006–2014. Public Understanding of Science, 27(1), 94–109. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662516649803
Besley, J. C., & Tanner, A. H. (2011). What science communication scholars think about training scientists to communicate. Science Communication, 33(2), 239–263. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547010386972
Beville, H. (1948). The challenge of the new media. In W. Schramm (Ed.), Communications in modern society (pp. 126–141). University of Illinois Press.
Bhargava, P., MacDonald, K., Newton, C., Lin, H., & Pennycook, G. (2023). How effective are TikTok misinformation debunking videos? Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-114
Bing, C., & Schectman, J. (2024). Pentagon ran secret anti-vax campaign to undermine China during pandemic. Reuters Institute. https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/usa-covid-propaganda/
Birchall, C., & Knight, P. (2022). Do your own research: Conspiracy theories and the internet. Social Research: An International Quarterly, 89(3), 579–605. https://doi.org/10.1353/sor.2022.0049
Björnberg, K. E., Karlsson, M., Gilek, M., & Hansson, S. O. (2017). Climate and environmental science denial: A review of the scientific literature published in 1990–2015. Journal of Cleaner Production, 167, 229–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.08.066
Blevins, J. L., Edgerton, E., Jason, D. P., & Lee, J. J. (2021). Shouting into the wind: Medical science versus “BS” in the Twitter maelstrom of politics and misinformation about hydroxychloroquine. Social Media+ Society, 7(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051211024977
Block, A. B. (2013, March 12). Updated: TV ratings: ‘Dr. Phil’ tops talkers during February sweep, ‘Dr. Oz’ sees steep declines. The Hollywood Reporter. https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv-news/updated-tv-ratings-dr-phil-427733/
Bobkowski, P. S. (2015). Sharing the news: Effects of informational utility and opinion leadership on online news sharing. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 92(2), 320–345. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699015573194
Boness, C. L., Nelson, M., & Douaihy, A. B. (2022). Motivational interviewing strategies for addressing COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy. Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, 35(2), 420–426. https://doi.org/10.3122/jabfm.2022.02.210327
Bonilla-Silva, E. (1997). Rethinking racism: Toward a structural interpretation. American Sociological Review, 62(3), 465–480. https://doi.org/10.2307/2657316
Bonnevie, E., Ricciulli, V., Fields, M., & O’Neill, R. (2023). Lessons learned from monitoring Spanish-language vaccine misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic. Public Health Reports, 138(4), 586–592. https://doi.org/10.1177/00333549231168452
Bowes, S. M., Costello, T. H., Ma, W., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2021). Looking under the tinfoil hat: Clarifying the personological and psychopathological correlates of conspiracy beliefs. Journal of Personality, 89(3), 422–436. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12588
Bowles, J., Croke, K., Larreguy, H., Marshall, J., & Liu, S. (2023). Sustaining exposure to fact-checks: Misinformation discernment, media consumption, and its political implications (SSRN Scholarly Paper No. 4582703). SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4582703
boyd, d. (2017, January 5). Did media literacy backfire? Medium, Data & Society: Points. https://medium.com/datasociety-points/did-media-literacy-backfire-7418c084d88d
Boykoff, M. T. (2007). Flogging a dead norm? Newspaper coverage of anthropogenic climate change in the United States and United Kingdom from 2003 to 2006. Area, 39(4), 470–481. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40346068
___. (2008). Lost in translation? United States television news coverage of anthropogenic climate change, 1995–2004. Climatic Change, 86, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-007-9299-3
Boykoff, M. T., & Boykoff, J. M. (2004). Balance as bias: Global warming and the US prestige press. Global Environmental Change, 14(2), 125–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2003.10.001
Boynton, M. H., Portnoy, D. B., & Johnson, B. T. (2013). Exploring the ethics and psychological impact of deception in psychological research. IRB: Ethics & Human Research, 35(2), 7–13.
Bozarth, L., & Budak, C. (2021). Market forces: Quantifying the role of top credible ad servers in the fake news ecosystem. In Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media, 15(1), 83–94. https://doi.org/10.1609/icwsm.v15i1.18043
Bradshaw, A. S., Shelton, S. S., Fitzsimmons, A., & Treise, D. (2022). ‘From cover-up to catastrophe:’ How the anti-vaccine propaganda documentary ‘Vaxxed’ impacted student perceptions and intentions about MMR vaccination. Journal of Communication in Healthcare, 15(3), 219–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/17538068.2022.2117527
Brady, H. E., & Kent, T. B. (2022). Fifty years of declining confidence & increasing polarization in trust in American institutions. Daedalus, 151(4), 43–66. https://doi.org/10.1162/daed_a_01943
Brady, H. E., & Schlozman, K. L. (2022). Introduction. Daedalus, the Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 151(4), 6–22. https://doi.org/10.1162/daed_e_01941
Brandtzaeg, P. B., & Lüders, M. (2018). Time collapse in social media: Extending the context collapse. Social Media + Society, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305118763349
Brannon, V. C., & Holmes, E. N. (2024, January 4). Section 230: An overview (CRS Report No. R46751). Congressional Research Service. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46751
Brashier, N. M., Pennycook, G., Berinsky, A. J., & Rand, D. G. (2021). Timing matters when correcting fake news. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(5), e2020043118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2020043118
Bratton, L., Adams, R. C., Challenger, A., Boivin, J., Bott, L., Chambers, C. D., & Sumner, P. (2019). The association between exaggeration in health-related science news and academic press releases: A replication study. Wellcome Open Research, 4, 148. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.15486.2
Braveman, P., & Gottlieb, L. (2014). The social determinants of health: It’s time to consider the causes of the causes. Public Health Reports, 129(1, Suppl 2), 19–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/00333549141291S206
Breakstone, J., Smith, M., Connors, P., Ortega, T., Kerr, D., & Wineburg, S. (2021). Lateral reading: College students learn to critically evaluate internet sources in an online course. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-56
Brechman, J. M., Lee, C. J., & Cappella, J. N. (2011). Distorting genetic research about cancer: From bench science to press release to published news. Journal of Communication, 61(3), 496–513. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01550.x
Breckenridge, L. A., Burns, D., & Nye, C. (2022). The use of motivational interviewing to overcome COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in primary care settings. Public Health Nursing, 39(3), 618–623. https://doi.org/10.1111/phn.13003
Brennen, J. S., Simon, F. M., Howard, P. N., & Kleis Nielsen, R. (2020, April 7). Types, sources, and claims of misinformation [Fact Sheet]. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/types-sources-and-claims-covid-19-misinformation
Brennen, J. S., Simon, F. M., & Nielsen, R. K. (2021). Beyond (mis)representation: Visuals in COVID-19 misinformation. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 26(1), 277–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161220964780
Brewer, S. E., Cataldi, J. R., Fisher, M., Glasgow, R. E., Garrett, K., & O’Leary, S. T. (2020). Motivational interviewing for maternal immunisation (MI4MI) study: A protocol for an implementation study of a clinician vaccine communication intervention for prenatal care settings. BMJ Open, 10(11), e040226. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-040226
Briand, S. C., Cinelli, M., Nguyen, T., Lewis, R., Prybylski, D., Valensise, C. M., Colizza, V., Tozzi, A. E., Perra, N., Baronchelli, A., Tizzoni, M., Zollo, F., Scala, A., Purnat, T., Czerniak, C., Kucharski, A. J., Tshangela, A., Zhou, L., & Quattrociocchi, W. (2021). Infodemics: A new challenge for public health. Cell, 184(25), 6010–6014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2021.10.031
Brierley, L. (2021). Lessons from the influx of preprints during the early COVID-19 pandemic. The Lancet Planetary Health, 5(3), e115–e117. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00011-5
Bright, J. (2016). The social news gap: How news reading and news sharing diverge. Journal of Communication, 66(3), 343–365. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12232
BrightEdge. (2019). Organic search improves ability to map to consumer intent: Organic channel share expands to 53.3% of traffic. https://videos.brightedge.com/research-report/BrightEdge_ChannelReport2019_FINAL.pdf
Broda, E., & Strömbäck, J. (2024). Misinformation, disinformation, and fake news: Lessons from an interdisciplinary, systematic literature review. Annals of the International Communication Association, 48(2), 139–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2024.2323736
Broniatowski, D. A., Greene, K. T., Pisharody, N., Rogers, D. J., & Shapiro, J. N. (2023a). Measuring the monetization strategies of websites with application to pro- and antivaccine communities. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 15964. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-43061-6
Broniatowski, D. A., Jamison, A. M., Johnson, N. F., Velasquez, N., Leahy, R., Restrepo, N. J., Dredze, M., & Quinn, S. C. (2020). Facebook pages, the “Disneyland” measles outbreak, and promotion of vaccine refusal as a civil right, 2009–2019. American Journal of Public Health, 110(S3), S312–S318. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2020.305869
Broniatowski, D. A., Jamison, A. M., Qi, S., AlKulaib, L., Chen, T., Benton, A., Quinn, S. C., & Dredze, M. (2018). Weaponized health communication: Twitter bots and Russian trolls amplify the vaccine debate. American Journal of Public Health, 108(10), 1378–1384. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2018.304567
Broniatowski, D. A., Kerchner, D., Farooq, F., Huang, X., Jamison, A. M., Dredze, M., Quinn, S. C., & Ayers, J. W. (2022). Twitter and Facebook posts about COVID-19 are less likely to spread misinformation compared to other health topics. PLoS One, 17(1), e0261768. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261768
Broniatowski, D. A., Simons, J. R., Gu, J., Jamison, A. M., & Abroms, L. C. (2023b). The efficacy of Facebook’s vaccine misinformation policies and architecture during the COVID-19 pandemic. Science Advances, 9(37), eadh2132. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adh2132
Broockman, D. E., & Kalla, J. L. (2024). Selective exposure and echo chambers in partisan television consumption: Evidence from linked viewership, administrative, and survey data. American Journal of Political Science, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12886
Brossard D., & Lewenstein B. V. (2010). A critical appraisal of models of public understanding of science: Using practice to inform theory. In L. Kahlor & P. Stout (Eds.), Communicating science: New agendas in communication (pp. 11–39). Routledge.
Brossard, D., & Scheufele, D. A. (2013). Science, new media, and the public. Science, 339(6115), 40–41. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1232329
___. The chronic growing pains of communicating science online. Science, 375(6581), 613–614. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abo0668
Brown, B. A., Reveles, J. M., & Kelly, G. J. (2005). Scientific literacy and discursive identity: A theoretical framework for understanding science learning. Science Education, 89(5), 779–802. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.20069
Brown, L. A., Zhu, Y., Hamlett, G. E., Moore, T. M., DiDomenico, G. E., Visoki, E., Greenberg, D. M., Gur, R. C., Gur, R. E., & Barzilay, R. (2023). COVID-19 worries and insomnia: A follow-up study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(5), 4568. https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/20/5/4568
Brubaker, R. (2005). The ‘diaspora’ diaspora. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 28(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/0141987042000289997
Brulle, R. J., & Werthman, C. (2021). The role of public relations firms in climate change politics. Climatic Change, 169(8). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-021-03244-4
Bryanov, K., Vasina, D., Pankova, Y., & Pakholkov, V. (2022). The other side of deplatforming: Right-wing Telegram in the wake of Trump’s Twitter ouster. In D. A. Alexandrov, A. V. Boukhanovsky, A. V. Chugunov, Y. Kabanov, O. Koltsova, I. Musabirov, & S. Pashakhin (Eds.), Digital transformation and global society (Vol. 1503, pp. 417–428). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93715-7_30
Buckels, E. E., Trapnell, P. D., & Paulhus, D. L. (2014). Trolls just want to have fun. Personality and Individual Differences, 67, 97–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.016
Buckingham, J., Beaman, R., & Wheldall, K. (2023). Why poor children are more likely to become poor readers: The early years. In J. Martin, M. Bowl, & G. Banks (Eds.), Mapping the field (pp. 185–203). Routledge.
Buckley, N., & Calo, R. (2023, unpublished). [The governance of science misinformation: A report to the National Academies]. Paper commissioned by the Committee on Understanding and Addressing Misinformation About Science, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Available on request in the National Academies’ Public Access Files.
Budak, C., Goel, S., & Rao, J. M. (2016). Fair and balanced? Quantifying media bias through crowdsourced content analysis. Public Opinion Quarterly, 80(S1), 250–271. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfw007
Bui, K. X. (2021). Objects of warfare: Infrastructures of race and napalm in the Vietnam War. Amerasia Journal, 47(2), 299–313. https://doi.org/10.1080/00447471.2021.2021775
Bull-Otterson, L., Gray, E. B., Budnitz, D. S., Strosnider, H. M., Schieber, L. Z., Courtney, J., García, M. C., Brooks, J. T., Mac Kenzie, W. R., & Gundlapalli, A. V. (2020). Hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine prescribing patterns by provider specialty following initial reports of potential benefit for COVID-19 treatment—United States, January–June 2020. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(35), 1210–1215. http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6935a4
Bullard, R. D. (2008). Differential vulnerabilities: Environmental and economic inequality and government response to unnatural disasters. Social Research: An International Quarterly, 75(3), 753–784. https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/sor.2008.0035.
Buntain, C., Bonneau, R., Nagler, J., & Tucker, J. A. (2023a). Measuring the ideology of audiences for web links and domains using differentially private engagement data. Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media, 17(1), 72–83. https://doi.org/10.1609/icwsm.v17i1.22127
Buntain, C., Innes, M., Mitts, T., & Shapiro, J. (2023b). Cross-platform reactions to the post-January 6 deplatforming. Journal of Quantitative Description: Digital Media, 3. https://doi.org/10.51685/jqd.2023.004
Burstin, H., Curry, S., Ranney, M. L., Arora, V., Wachler, B. B., Chou, W.-Y. S., Correa, R., Cryer, D., Dizon, D., Flores, E. J., Harmon, G., Jain, A., Johnson, K., Laine, C., Leininger, L., McMahon, G., Michaelis, L., Minhas, R., Mularski, R., Oldham, J., Padman, R., Pinnock, C., Rivera, J., Southwell, B., Villarruel, A., & Wallace, K. (2023). Identifying credible sources of health information in social media: Phase 2–Considerations for non-accredited nonprofit organizations, for-profit entities, and individual sources (Discussion Paper). National Academy of Medicine. https://doi.org/10.31478/202305b
Burton, A. G., & Koehorst, D. (2020). Research note: The spread of political misinformation on online subcultural platforms. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 1(6), https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-40
Butler, A. C., Zaromb, F. M., Lyle, K. B., & Roediger III, H. L. (2009). Using popular films to enhance classroom learning: The good, the bad, and the interesting. Psychological Science, 20(9), 1161–1168. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02410.x
Butler, L. D., Koopman, C., & Zimbardo, P. G. (1995). The psychological impact of viewing the film “JFK”: Emotions, beliefs, and political behavioral intentions. Political Psychology, 16(2), 237–257. https://doi.org/10.2307/3791831
Byrum, G., & Benjamin, R. (2022). Disrupting the gospel of tech solutionism to build tech justice. Stanford Social Innovation Review. https://doi.org/10.48558/9SEV-4D26
Cabrera, N., Alonso, A., Chen, Y., & Ghosh, R. (2022). Latinx families’ strengths and resilience contribute to their well-being. National Research Center on Hispanic Children and Families. https://www.hispanicresearchcenter.org/research-resources/latinx-families-strengths-and-resilience-contribute-to-their-well-being/
Cacciatore M. A. (2021). Misinformation and public opinion of science and health: Approaches, findings, and future directions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118(15), e1912437117. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1912437117
Calo, R., Coward, C., Spiro, E. S., Starbird, K., & West, J. D. (2021). How do you solve a problem like misinformation? Science Advances, 7(50), eabn0481. https://doi.org/doi:10.1126/sciadv.abn0481
Campeau, K. (2023). Who’s a vaccine skeptic? Framing vaccine hesitancy in post-Covid news coverage. Written Communication, 40(3), 976–1023. https://doi.org/10.1177/07410883231169622
Candidatu, L., & Ponzanesi, S. (2022). Digital diasporas: Staying with the trouble. Communication, Culture and Critique, 15(2), 261–268. https://doi.org/10.1093/ccc/tcac010
Carey, J. M., Guess, A. M., Loewen, P. J., Merkley, E., Nyhan, B., Phillips, J. B., & Reifler, J. (2022). The ephemeral effects of fact-checks on COVID-19 misperceptions in the United States, Great Britain and Canada. Nature Human Behaviour, 6, 236–243. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01278-3
Carlone, H. B., Johnson, A., & Scott, C. M. (2015). Agency amidst formidable structures: How girls perform gender in science class. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 52(4), 474–488. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21224
Carrera, J. S., Key, K., Bailey, S., Hamm, J. A., Cuthbertson, C. A., Lewis, E. Y., Woolford, S. J., DeLoney, E. H., Greene-Moton, E., Wallace, K., Robinson, D. E., Byers, I., Piechowski, P., Evans, L., McKay, A., Vereen, D., Sparks, A., & Calhoun, K. (2019). Community science as a pathway for resilience in response to a public health crisis in Flint, Michigan. Social Sciences, 8(3), 94. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0760/8/3/94
Carrion, M. L. (2018). “You need to do your research”: Vaccines, contestable science, and maternal epistemology. Public Understanding of Science, 27(3), 310–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662517728024
Castets-Renard, C. (2020). Algorithmic content moderation on social media in EU law: Illusion of perfect enforcement. University of Illinois Journal of Law, Technology & Policy, 2020(2), 283–324. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3535107
Cataldi, J. R. (2021). The many costs of measles outbreaks and undervaccination: Why we need to invest in public health. Pediatrics, 147(4). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-035303
Caulfield, T. (2015). Is Gwyneth Paltrow wrong about everything?: How the famous sell us elixirs of health, beauty & happiness. Beacon Press.
___. (2018). Spinning the genome: Why science hype matters. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 61(4), 560–571. https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2018.0065.
Caulfield, T., & Condit, C. (2012). Science and the sources of hype. Public Health Genomics, 15(3-4), 209–217. https://doi.org/10.1159/000336533
Celadin, T., Capraro, V., Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2023). Displaying news source trustworthiness ratings reduces sharing intentions for false news posts. Journal of Online Trust and Safety, 1(5). https://doi.org/10.54501/jots.v1i5.100
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2021a) Talking with patients about COVID-19 vaccination. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/hcp/engaging-patients.html.
___. (2021b). Social listening and monitoring tools: COVID-19 vaccine confidence: Rapid community assessment tool. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/vaccinate-with-confidence/rca-guide/downloads/cdc_rca_guide_2021_tools_appendixe_sociallistening-monitoring-tools-508.pdf
___. (2024). How to conduct a rapid community assessment. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/vaccinate-with-confidence/rca-guide/index.html
Cerda, A. (2024, August 12). Americans see many federal agencies favorably, but Republicans grow more critical of Justice Department. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2024/08/12/americans-see-many-federal-agencies-favorably-but-republicans-grow-more-critical-of-justice-department/
Ceylan, G., Anderson, I. A., & Wood, W. (2023). Sharing of misinformation is habitual, not just lazy or biased. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(4), e2216614120. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2216614120
Cha, M., Cha, C., Singh, K., Lima, G., Ahn, Y.-Y., Kulshrestha, J., & Varol, O. (2021). Prevalence of misinformation and factchecks on the COVID-19 pandemic in 35 countries: Observational infodemiology study. JMIR Human Factors, 8(1), e23279. https://doi.org/10.2196/23279
Chadwick, A. (2017). The hybrid media system: Politics and power (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Chadwick, A., & Vaccari, C. (2019). News sharing on UK social media: Misinformation, disinformation, and correction. Loughborough University Online Civic Culture Centre. https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/report/News_sharing_on_UK_social_media_misinformation_disinformation_and_correction/9471269
Chadwick, A., Vaccari, C., & Hall, N. A. (2023). What explains the spread of misinformation in online personal messaging networks? Exploring the role of conflict avoidance. Digital Journalism, 12(5), 574–593. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2023.2206038
Chakrabarti, S., Rooney, C., & Kweon, M. (2018). Verification, duty, credibility: Fake news and ordinary citizens in Kenya and Nigeria. BBC. https://downloads.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/bbc-fake-news-research-paper-nigeria-kenya.pdf
Chambers, D. (2013). Virtual communities and online social capital. In D. Chambers (Ed.), Social media and personal relationships: Online intimacies and networked friendship (pp. 142–161). Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137314444_8
Chan, M. S., & Albarracín, D. (2023). A meta-analysis of correction effects in science-relevant misinformation. Nature Human Behaviour, 7(9), 1514–1525. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01623-8
Chan, M. S., Jones, C. R., Hall Jamieson, K., & Albarracín, D. (2017). Debunking: A meta-analysis of the psychological efficacy of messages countering misinformation. Psychological Science, 28(11), 1531–1546. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617714579
Chandrasekharan, E., Pavalanathan, U., Srinivasan, A., Glynn, A., Eisenstein, J., & Gilbert, E. (2017). You can’t stay here: The efficacy of Reddit’s 2015 ban examined through hate speech. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 1(CSCW), Article 31, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1145/3134666
Chater, N., & Loewenstein, G. (2023). The i-frame and the s-frame: How focusing on individual-level solutions has led behavioral public policy astray. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 46, e147. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X22002023
Chatman, E. A. (1996). The impoverished life-world of outsiders. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 47(3), 193–206. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(199603)47:3<193::AID-ASI3>3.0.CO;2-T
Chen, C. (2003). On the shoulders of giants. In Mapping scientific frontiers: The quest for knowledge visualization (pp. 135–166). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-0051-5_5
Chen, L., Zhang, Y., Young, R., Wu, X., & Zhu, G. (2021). Effects of vaccine-related conspiracy theories on Chinese young adults’ perceptions of the HPV vaccine: An experimental study. Health Communication, 36(11), 1343–1353. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2020.1751384
Chen, S., Xiao, L., & Kumar, A. (2023). Spread of misinformation on social media: What contributes to it and how to combat it. Computers in Human Behavior, 141, 107643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107643
Chen, X., Sin, S.-C. J., Theng, Y.-L., & Lee, C. S. (2015). Why students share misinformation on social media: Motivation, gender, and study-level differences. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 41(5), 583–592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2015.07.003
Chien, A. A., Lin, L., Nguyen, H., Rao, V., Sharma, T., & Wijayawardana, R. (2023, August 2). Reducing the carbon impact of generative AI Inference (today and in 2035). Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Sustainable Computer Systems, Article 11. https://doi.org/10.1145/3604930.3605705
Chigwedere, P., Seage III, G. R., Gruskin, S., Lee, T. H., & Essex, M. (2008). Estimating the lost benefits of antiretroviral drug use in South Africa. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 49(4), 410–415. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0b013e31818a6cd5
Chinn, S., Hart, P. S., & Soroka, S. (2020). Politicization and polarization in climate change news content, 1985-2017. Science Communication, 42(1), 112–129. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547019900290
Chinn, S., & Hasell, A. (2023). Support for ‘doing your own research’ is associated with COVID-19 misperceptions and scientific mistrust. Harvard Kennedy School Mis/information Review, 4(3), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-117
Chiou, H., Voegeli, C., Wilhelm, E., Kolis, J., Brookmeyer, K., & Prybylski, D. (2022). The future of infodemic surveillance as public health surveillance. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 28(Suppl 1), S121–S128. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2813.220696
Chong, M., Froehlich, T. J., & Shu, K. (2021). Racial attacks during the COVID-19 pandemic: Politicizing an epidemic crisis on longstanding racism and misinformation, disinformation, and misconception. Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 58, 573–576. https://doi.org/10.1002/pra2.501
Chou, W.-Y. S., Gaysynsky, A., & Cappella, J. N. (2020). Where we go from here: Health misinformation on social media. American Journal of Public Health, 110(S3), S273–S275. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305905
Cialdini, R. B., & Goldstein, N. J. (2004). Social influence: Compliance and conformity. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 591–621. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142015
Cinelli, M., De Francisci Morales, G., Galeazzi, A., Quattrociocchi, W., & Starnini, M. (2021). The echo chamber effect on social media. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(9), e2023301118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2023301118
Clancy, K. A., & Clancy, B. (2016). Growing monstrous organisms: the construction of anti-GMO visual rhetoric through digital media. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 33(3), 279–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295036.2016.1193670
Clarke, C. E. (2008). A question of balance: The autism-vaccine controversy in the British and American elite press. Science Communication, 30(1), 77–107. https://doi.org/10.1177/107554700832026
Cogordan, C., Fressard, L., Ramalli, L., Rebaudet, S., Malfait, P., Dutrey-Kaiser, A., Attalah, Y., Roy, D., Berthiaume, P., Gagneur, A., & Verger, P. (2023). Motivational interview-based health mediator interventions increase intent to vaccinate among disadvantaged individuals. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, 19(2). https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2023.2261687
Cohen, J. (2009, March 11). Reporters ask for direct access to federal scientists. Science Insider. https://www.science.org/content/article/reporters-ask-direct-access-federal-scientists
Colgrove, J., & Samuel, S. J. (2022). Freedom, rights, and vaccine refusal: The history of an idea. American Journal of Public Health, 112(2), 234–241. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306504
Collins, B., & Zadrozny, B. (2020, May 29). Troll farms from North Macedonia and the Philippines pushed coronavirus disinformation on Facebook. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/troll-farms-macedonia-philippines-pushed-coronavirus-disinformation-facebook-n1218376
Collins-Dexter, B. (2020). Canaries in the coal mine: COVID-19 misinformation and Black communities. Shorenstein Center of Media, Politics, and Public Policy, Harvard Kennedy School. https://shorensteincenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Canaries-in-the-Coal-Mine-Shorenstein-Center-June-2020.pdf
Conley, J. G. (2007). Conflict of interest and the EP’s science advisory board. Texas Law Review, 86, 165.
Cook, C. L., Patel, A., & Wohn, D. Y. (2021). Commercial versus volunteer: Comparing user perceptions of toxicity and transparency in content moderation across social media platforms. Frontiers in Human Dynamics, 3, 626409. https://doi.org/10.3389/fhumd.2021.626409
Cook, J. (2020). Deconstructing climate science denial. In D. Holmes & L. M. Richardson (Eds.), Edward Elgar research handbook in communicating climate change. Edward Elgar. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781789900408.00014
Cook, J., Lewandowsky, S., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2017). Neutralizing misinformation through inoculation: Exposing misleading argumentation techniques reduces their influence. PLoS One, 12(5), e0175799. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0175799
Cooper, B. E., Lee, W. E., Goldacre, B. M., & Sanders, T. A. (2012). The quality of the evidence for dietary advice given in UK national newspapers. Public Understanding of Science, 21(6), 664–673. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662511401782
Cooper, K. E., & Nisbet, E. C. (2017). Documentary and edutainment portrayals of climate change and their societal impacts. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.373
Cordonier, L., & Brest. A. (2021, March). How do the French inform themselves on the internet? Analysis of online information and disinformation behaviors. Fondation Descartes. https://hal.science/hal-03167734/document
Cox, K. (2024, June 15). Most Black Americans believe U.S. institutions were designed to hold Black people back. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/race-and-ethnicity/2024/06/15/most-black-americans-believe-u-s-institutions-were-designed-to-hold-black-people-back/
Crenshaw, K. W. (2017). On intersectionality: Essential writings. The New Press.
Criss, S., Nguyen, T. T., Norton, S., Virani, I., Titherington, E., Tillmanns, E. L., Kinnane, C., Maiolo, G., Kirby, A. B., & Gee, G. C. (2021). Advocacy, hesitancy, and equity: Exploring US race-related discussions of the COVID-19 vaccine on Twitter. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(11), 5693. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115693
Crocker, J. (2011). The road to fraud starts with a single step. Nature, 479(7372), 151. https://doi.org/10.1038/479151a
Curley, C., Siapera, E., & Carthy, J. (2022). Covid-19 protesters and the far right on telegram: Co-conspirators or accidental bedfellows? Social Media + Society, 8(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051221129187
Dabran-Zivan, S., Baram-Tsabari, A., Shapira, R., Yitshaki, M., Dvorzhitskaia, D., & Grinberg, N. (2023). “Is COVID-19 a hoax?”: Auditing the quality of COVID-19 conspiracy-related information and misinformation in Google search results in four languages. Internet Research, 33(5), 1774–1801. https://doi.org/10.1108/INTR-07-2022-0560
Dahlstrom, M. F. (2014). Using narratives and storytelling to communicate science with nonexpert audiences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(Suppl 4), 13614–13620. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1320645111
___. (2021). The narrative truth about scientific misinformation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(15), e1914085117. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1914085117
Davenport, T. H., & Beck, J. C. (2001). The attention economy: Understanding the new currency of business. Harvard Business School Press.
Davern, M., Bautista, R., Freese, J., Herd, P., & Morgan, S. L. (2024). General social survey 1972-2024. NORC at the University of Chicago. https://gssdataexplorer.norc.org
Davies, P., Chapman, S., & Leask, J. (2002). Antivaccination activists on the world wide web. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 87(1), 22–25. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.87.1.22
Davis, J. L., & Jurgenson, N. (2014). Context collapse: Theorizing context collusions and collisions. Information, Communication & Society, 17(4), 476–485. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2014.888458
de Cock Buning, M. (2018, March). A multi-dimensional approach to disinformation: Report of the independent high level group on fake news and online disinformation. Publications Office of the European Union. https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/6ef4df8b-4cea-11e8-be1d-01aa75ed71a1/language-en
De Pryck, K., & Gemenne, F. (2017). The denier-in-chief: Climate change, science and the election of Donald J. Trump. Law and Critique, 28, 119–126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10978-017-9207-6
de Saint Laurent, C., Murphy, G., Hegarty, K., & Greene, C. M. (2022). Measuring the effects of misinformation exposure and beliefs on behavioural intentions: A COVID-19 vaccination study. Cognitive Research, 7, 87. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-022-00437-y
Dechêne, A., Stahl, C., Hansen, J., & Wänke, M. (2010). The truth about the truth: A meta-analytic review of the truth effect. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(2), 238–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309352251
Deinla, I., Mendoza, R. U., & Yap, J. (2021, December 1). Philippines: Diagnosing the infodemic. Lowy Institute. https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/philippines-diagnosing-infodemic
Del Vicario, M., Bessi, A., Zollo, F., Petroni, F., Scala, A., Caldarelli, G., Stanley, H. E., & Quattrociocchi, W. (2016). The spreading of misinformation online. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(3), 554–559. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1517441113
Delgado-López, P. D., & Corrales-García, E. M. (2018). Influence of internet and social media in the promotion of alternative oncology, cancer quackery, and the predatory publishing phenomenon. Cureus, 10(5), e2617. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.2617
Denham, B. (2020). Magazine journalism in the golden age of muckraking: Patent-medicine exposures before and after the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906. Journalism & Communication Monographs, 22(2), 100–159. https://doi.org/10.1177/1522637920914979
Dewey, J. (1923). The public and its problems. Henry Holt.
Deyrup, A., & Graves Jr, J. L. (2022). Racial biology and medical misconceptions. New England Journal of Medicine, 386(6), 501–503. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp2116224
Diamond, L. L., Batan, H., Anderson, J., & Palen, L. (2022). The polyvocality of online COVID-19 vaccine narratives that invoke medical racism. In S. Barbosa, C. Lampe, C. Appert, D. A. Shamma, S. Drucker, J. Williamson, & K. Yatani (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 145. https://doi.org/10.1145/3491102.3501892
Dias, N., Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2020). Emphasizing publishers does not effectively reduce susceptibility to misinformation on social media. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-001
Diethelm, P., & McKee, M. (2009). Denialism: What is it and how should scientists respond? European Journal of Public Health, 19(1), 2–4. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckn139
Dietz T. (2013). Bringing values and deliberation to science communication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(Suppl 3), 14081–14087. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1212740110
___. (2023). Decisions for sustainability: Facts and values. Cambridge University Press.
Dietz, T., Stern, P. C., & Rycroft, R. W. (1989). Definitions of conflict and the legitimation of resources: The case of environmental risk. Sociological Forum, 4(1), 47–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01112616
Dilenschneider, C. (2023). More people trust museums now than before the pandemic (DATA). Impacts Experience. https://www.colleendilen.com/2023/03/01/more-people-trust-museums-now-than-before-the-pandemic-data/
DiResta, R. (2018, November 8). Of virality and viruses: The anti-vaccine movement and social media. Nautilus Institute for Security and Sustainability. https://nautilus.org/napsnet/napsnet-special-reports/of-virality-and-viruses-the-anti-vaccine-movement-and-social-media/
DiRusso, C., & Stansberry, K. (2022). Unvaxxed: A cultural study of the online anti-vaccination movement. Qualitative Health Research, 32(2), 317–329. https://doi.org/10.1177/10497323211056050
Dorius, S. F., & Lawrence-Dill, C. J. (2018). Sowing the seeds of skepticism: Russian state news and anti-GMO sentiment. GM Crops & Food, 9(2), 53–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645698.2018.1454192
Douglas, J., Bauer, E., Cain, G., Scott, D., & Mellman, T. A. (2023). Adapting motivational interviewing for vaccine hesitancy in underserved communities. Journal of Clinical and Translational Science, 7(s1), 47–47. https://doi.org/10.1017/cts.2023.234
Douglas, K. M., Sutton, R. M., & Cichocka, A. (2017). The psychology of conspiracy theories. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(6), 538–542. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417718261
Dowling, D., Johnson, P., & Ekdale, B. (2022). Hijacking journalism: Legitimacy and meta-journalistic discourse in right-wing podcasts. Media and Communication, 10(3), 17–27. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v10i3.5260
Druckman, J. N. (2022). Threats to science: Politicization, misinformation, and inequalities. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 700(1), 8–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027162221095431
Druckman, J. N., Klar, S., Krupnikov, Y., Levendusky, M., & Ryan, J. B. (2021). Affective polarization, local contexts and public opinion in America. Nature Human Behaviour, 5(1), 28–38. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-01012-5
___. (2024a). Partisan hostility and American democracy: Explaining political divisions and when they matter. University of Chicago Press.
Druckman, J. N., & Levy, J. (2022). Affective polarization in the American public. In T. Rudolph (Ed.), Handbook on politics and public opinion (pp. 257–271). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Druckman, J. N., Schulman, J., Safarpout, A. C., Baum, M., Ognyanova, K., Trujillo, K. L., Mathé, A. Q., Qu, H., Uslu, A. A., Perlis, R. H., & Lazer, D. M. J. (2024b). Continuity and change in trust in scientists in the United States: Demographic stability and partisan polarization. SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4929030
Drummond, C., & Fischhoff, B. (2017a). Individuals with greater science literacy and education have more polarized beliefs on controversial science topics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(36), 9587–9592. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1704882114
___. (2017b). Development and validation of the scientific reasoning scale. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 30(1), 26–38. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/bdm.1906
___. (2020). Predictors of public attitudes toward controversial science 1979–1990. Journal of Risk Research, 23(10), 1318–1335. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2019.1646313
Drummond, C., Gray, S. G., Raimi, K. T., Wilson, R., & Árvai, J. (2020). Public perceptions of federal science advisory boards depend on their composition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(37), 22668–22670.
Dubois, E., & Blank, G. (2018). The echo chamber is overstated: The moderating effect of political interest and diverse media. Information, Communication & Society, 21(5), 729–745. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2018.1428656
Duffy, A., Tandoc, E., & Ling, R. (2020). Too good to be true, too good not to share: The social utility of fake news. Information, Communication & Society, 23(13), 1965–1979. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2019.1623904
Dunlap, R. E., & Brulle, R. J. (2020). Sources and amplifiers of climate change denial. In D. C. Holmes & L. M. Richardson, L. M. (Eds.), Research handbook on communicating climate change (pp. 49–61). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Dunlap, R. E., & Jacques, P. J. (2013). Climate change denial books and conservative think tanks: Exploring the connection. American Behavioral Scientist, 57(6), 699–731. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764213477096
Dunlap, R. E., & McCright, A. M. (2011). Organized climate change denial. In J. S. Dryzek, R. B. Norgaard, & D. Schlosberg (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of climate change and society (pp. 144–160). Oxford University Press.
Dunn, A. G., Surian, D., Dalmazzo, J., Rezazadegan, D., Steffens, M., Dyda, A., Leask, J., Coiera, E., Dey, A., & Mandl, K. D. (2020). Limited role of bots in spreading vaccine-critical information among active Twitter users in the United States: 2017–2019. American Journal of Public Health, 110(S3), S319–S325. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305902
Dunna, A., Keith, K. A., Zuckerman, E., Vallina-Rodriguez, N., O’Connor, B., & Nithyanand, R. (2022). Paying attention to the algorithm behind the curtain: Bringing transparency to YouTube’s demonetization algorithms. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 6(CSCW2), Article 318, 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1145/3555209
Dunning, D. (2011). The Dunning–Kruger effect: On being ignorant of one’s own ignorance. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 247–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-385522-0.00005-6
Dunwoody, S. (2021). Science journalism: Prospects in the digital age. In M. Bucchi & B. Trench (Eds.), Routledge handbook of public communication of science and technology (3rd ed., pp. 14–32). Routledge.
Earl, J., James, R., Ramo, E., & Scovill, S. (2021). Protest, activism, and false information. In H. Tumber & S. Waisbord (Eds.), The Routledge companion to media disinformation and populism (pp. 290–301). Routledge.
Ecker, U. K. H., & Antonio, L. M. (2021). Can you believe it? An investigation into the impact of retraction source credibility on the continued influence effect. Memory & Cognition, 49(4), 631–644. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-020-01129-y
Ecker, U. K. H., Hogan, J. L., & Lewandowsky, S. (2017). Reminders and repetition of misinformation: Helping or hindering its retraction? Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6(2), 185–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.01.014
Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Schmid, P., Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N., Kendeou, P., Vraga, E. K., & Amazeen, M. A. (2022). The psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its resistance to correction. Nature Reviews Psychology, 1, 13–29. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-021-00006-y
Ecker, U. K. H., O’Reilly, Z., Reid, J. S., & Chang, E. P. (2020). The effectiveness of short-format refutational fact-checks. British Journal of Psychology, 111(1), 36–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12383
Edelson, L., Nguyen, M. K., Goldstein, I., Goga, O., McCoy, D., & Lauinger, T. (2021, November). Understanding engagement with US (mis) information news sources on Facebook. In Proceedings of the 21st ACM Internet Measurement Conference (pp. 444–463).
Edgerly, S., Vraga, E. K., Bode, L., Thorson, K., & Thorson, E. (2018). New media, new relationship to participation? A closer look at youth news repertoires and political participation. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 95(1), 192–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699017706928
Edgerly, S., & Xu, Y. (2023). Local-level information-seeking in the COVID-19 pandemic: A repertoire approach. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 707(1), 172–188.
Einstein, K. L., & Glick, D. M. (2015). Do I think BLS data are BS? The consequences of conspiracy theories. Political Behavior, 37, 679–701. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1007/s11109-014-9287-z
El Mikati, I. K., Hoteit, R., Harb, T., El Zein, O., Piggott, T., Melki, J., Mustafa, R. A., & Akl, E. A. (2023). Defining misinformation and related terms in health-related literature: Scoping review. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 25, e45731. https://doi.org/10.2196/45731
Ellery, S. (2023, March 28). Fake photos of Pope Francis in a puffer jacket go viral, highlighting the power and peril of AI. CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/pope-francis-puffer-jacket-fake-photos-deepfake-power-peril-of-ai/
Elliott, K. C. (2017). A tapestry of values: An introduction to values in science. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190260804.001.0001
Elsasser, S. W., & Dunlap, R. E. (2013). Leading voices in the denier choir: Conservative columnists’ dismissal of global warming and denigration of climate science. American Behavioral Scientist, 57(6), 754–776. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764212469800
Epstein, Z., Sirlin, N., Arechar, A., Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. (2023). The social media context interferes with truth discernment. Science Advances, 9(9), eabo6169. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abo6169
Equis Institute. (2022, January 1). Latinos and a growing crisis of trust. https://www.weareequis.us/research/disinfo-landscape-latinos
___. (2022, June 23). Spanish-language recommendations and glossary. https://weareequis.us/api/docs/11BmqnvEQ17jcqvoE6xqTm/bb0b351858e541f518255cb049f56ebd/Equis_Spanish-Language_Recommendations_and_Glossary.pdf
European Commission. (2015, April 22). Fact sheet: Questions and answers on EU’s policies on GMOs. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/MEMO_15_4778
European Digital Rights. (2018, December 18). The EU’s attempt to regulate big tech: What it brings and what is missing. https://edri.org/our-work/eu-attempt-to-regulate-big-tech/
European Parliament. (2022, January 20). Digital Services Act: Regulating platforms for a safer online space for users [Press Release]. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20220114IPR21017/digital-services-act-regulating-platforms-for-a-safer-online-space-for-users
Evanega, S., Lynas, M., Adams, J., & Smolenyak, K. (2020). Coronavirus misinformation: Quantifying sources and themes in the COVID-19 ‘infodemic’. JMIR Preprints, 19(10), 2020.
Fainaru-Wada, M., & Fainaru, S. (2014). League of denial: The NFL, concussions, and the battle for truth. Crown.
Fang, J. (2021, May 26) Social media sites popular with Asian Americans have a big misinformation problem. Prism. https://prismreports.org/2021/05/26/social-media-sites-of-ten-used-by-asian-americans-have-a-big-problem-with-right-wing-misinformation/
Farrell, J. (2015). Corporate funding and ideological polarization about climate change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(1), 92–97. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1509433112
___. (2016). Network structure and influence of the climate change counter-movement. Nature Climate Change, 6(4), 370–374. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2875
___. (2019). The growth of climate change misinformation in US philanthropy: Evidence from natural language processing. Environmental Research Letters, 14(3), 034013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aaf939
Farrell, J., McConnell, K., & Brulle, R. (2019). Evidence-based strategies to combat scientific misinformation. Nature Climate Change, 9(3), 191–195. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0368-6
Fazio, L. K. (2020a). Pausing to consider why a headline is true or false can help reduce the sharing of false news. The Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 1(2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-009
___. (2020b). Repetition increases perceived truth even for known falsehoods. Collabra: Psychology, 6(1), Article 38. https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.347
Fazio, L. K., Barber, S. J., Rajaram, S., Ornstein, P. A., & Marsh, E. J. (2013). Creating illusions of knowledge: Learning errors that contradict prior knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 142(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028649
Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N. M., Payne, B. K., & Marsh, E. J. (2015). Knowledge does not protect against illusory truth. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(5), 993–1002. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000098
Fazio, L. K., Hong, M. K., & Pillai, R. M. (2023). Combatting rumors around the French election: the memorability and effectiveness of fact-checking articles. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 8(1), 44. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-023-00500-2
Fazio, L. K., Pillai, R. M., & Patel, D. (2022). The effects of repetition on belief in naturalistic settings. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 151(10), 2604–2613. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001211
Fazio, L. K., Rand, D. G., & Pennycook, G. (2019). Repetition increases perceived truth equally for plausible and implausible statements. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 26, 1705–1710. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-019-01651-4
Federal Trade Commission (n.d.) Truth in advertising. https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/topics/truth-advertising
Federation of State Medical Boards. (2021, July 29). FSMB: Spreading COVID-19 vaccine misinformation may put medical license at risk. https://www.fsmb.org/advocacy/news-releases/fsmb-spreading-covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-may-put-medical-license-at-risk/
Feinstein, N. (2011). Salvaging science literacy. Science Education, 95(1), 168–185. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.20414
Feinstein, N. W., Allen, S., & Jenkins, E. (2013). Outside the pipeline: Reimagining science education for nonscientists. Science, 340, 314–317. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1230855
Feinstein, N. W., & Waddington, D. I. (2020). Individual truth judgments or purposeful, collective sensemaking? Rethinking science education’s response to the post-truth era. Educational Psychologist, 55(3), 155–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2020.1780130
Feldman, L., Maibach, E. W., Roser-Renouf, C., & Leiserowitz, A. (2012). Climate on cable: The nature and impact of global warming coverage on Fox News, CNN, and MSNBC. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 17(1), 3–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161211425410
Feldman, L., Myers, T. A., Hmielowski, J. D., & Leiserowitz, A. (2014). The mutual reinforcement of media selectivity and effects: Testing the reinforcing spirals framework in the context of global warming. Journal of Communication, 64(4), 590–611. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12108
Feldman, L., Wojcieszak, M., Stroud, N. J., & Bimber, B. (2018). Explaining media choice: The role of issue-specific engagement in predicting interest-based and partisan selectivity. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 62(1), 109–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2017.1375502
Fernbach, P. M., Light, N., Scott, S. E., Inbar, Y., & Rozin, P. (2019). Extreme opponents of genetically modified foods know the least but think they know the most. Nature Human Behaviour, 3(3), 251–256. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0520-3
Ferrara, E., Cresci, S., & Luceri, L. (2020). Misinformation, manipulation, and abuse on social media in the era of COVID-19. Journal of Computational Social Science, 3, 271–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42001-020-00094-5
Ferreira Caceres, M. M., Sosa, J. P., Lawrence, J. A., Sestacovschi, C., Tidd-Johnson, A., Rasool, M. H. U., Gadamidi, V. K., Ozair, S., Pandav, K., Cuevas-Lou, C., Parrish, M., Rodriguez, I., & Fernandez, J. P. (2022). The impact of misinformation on the COVID-19 pandemic. AIMS Public Health, 9(2), 262–277. https://doi.org/10.3934/publichealth.2022018
Fischer, S. (2021, February 3). TikTok will prompt users when videos are flagged as misleading. Axios. https://www.axios.com/2021/02/03/tiktok-misleading-videos
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., & Glick, P. (2007). Universal dimensions of social cognition: Warmth and competence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(2), 77–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2006.11.005
Fleerackers, A., Riedlinger, M., Moorhead, L., Ahmed, R., & Alperin, J. P. (2022). Communicating scientific uncertainty in an age of COVID-19: An investigation into the use of preprints by digital media outlets. Health Communication, 37(6), 726–738. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2020.1864892
Flowers, C. C. (2020). Waste: One woman’s fight against America’s dirty secret. The New Press.
Fonseca, C., Pettitt, J., Woollard, A., Rutherford, A., Bickmore, W., Ferguson-Smith, A., & Hurst, L. D. (2023). People with more extreme attitudes towards science have self-confidence in their understanding of science, even if this is not justified. PLoS Biology, 21(1), e3001915. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001915
Food and Drug Administration. (n.d.a). Rumor control. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/rumor-control
___. (n.d.b). News & events for human drugs. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/news-events-human-drugs
___. (2024). Addressing misinformation about medical devices and prescription drugs questions and answers guidance for industry (Draft Guidance). https://www.fda.gov/media/179827/download
Forestal, J. (2021). Designing for democracy: How to build community in digital environments. Oxford University Press.
Frank, K. A., Chen, T., Brown, E., & Larsen, A. (2023). A network intervention for natural resource management in the context of climate change. Social Networks, 75, 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2022.03.003
Frank, L. B., Murphy, S. T., Chatterjee, J. S., Moran, M. B., & Baezconde-Garbanati, L. (2015). Telling stories, saving lives: Creating narrative health messages. Health Communication, 30(2), 154–163. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2014.974126
Frankfurt, H. G. (2005). On bullshit. Princeton University Press.
Fraser, N., Brierley, L., Dey, G., Polka, J. K., Pálfy, M., Nanni, F., & Coates, J. A. (2021). The evolving role of preprints in the dissemination of COVID-19 research and their impact on the science communication landscape. PLoS Biology, 19(4), e3000959. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000959
Freelon, D. (2023). The shared psychological roots of prejudice and conspiracy theory belief. Current Opinion in Psychology, 101773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101773
Freelon, D., & Wells, C. (2020). Disinformation as political communication. Political Communication, 37(2), 145–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2020.1723755
Freiling, I., Krause, N. M., & Scheufele, D. (2023). Science and ethics of “curing” misinformation. AMA Journal of Ethics, 25(3), E228–E237. https://doi.org/10.1001/amajethics.2023.228
Freiling, I., Krause, N. M., Scheufele, D. A., & Brossard, D. (2023). Believing and sharing misinformation, fact-checks, and accurate information on social media: The role of anxiety during COVID-19. New Media & Society, 25(1), 141–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448211011451
Frenkel, S., Decker, B., & Alba, D. (2020, May 20). How the ‘Plandemic’ movie and its falsehoods spread widely online. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/20/technology/plandemic-movie-youtube-facebook-coronavirus.html
Friedman, A. (2023). Mammography wars: Analyzing attention in cultural and medical disputes. Rutgers University Press.
Funk, C. (2017). Mixed messages about public trust in science. Issues in Science and Technology, 34(1), 86–88. https://issues.org/real-numbers-mixed-messages-about-public-trust-in-science/
Funk, C., Gottfried, J., & Mitchell, A. (2017, September 20). Science news and information today. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/2017/09/20/science-news-and-information-today/
Fürst, S. (2020). In the service of good journalism and audience interests? How audience metrics affect news quality. Media and Communication, 8(3), 270–280. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v8i3.3228
Gabarda, A., & Butterworth, S. W. (2021). Using best practices to address COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy: The case for the motivational interviewing approach. Health Promotion Practice, 22(5), 611–615. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248399211016463
Gagneur, A., Gosselin, V., & Dubé, È. (2018a). Motivational interviewing: A promising tool to address vaccine hesitancy. Vaccine, 36(44), 6553–6555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.10.049
Gagneur, A., Lemaître, T., Gosselin, V., Farrands, A., Carrier, N., Petit, G., Valiquette, L., & De Wals, P. (2018b). A postpartum vaccination promotion intervention using motivational interviewing techniques improves short-term vaccine coverage: PromoVac study. BMC Public Health, 18(1), 811. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5724-y
Gamble, V. N. (1997). Under the shadow of Tuskegee: African Americans and health care. American Journal of Public Health, 87(11), 1773–1778. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.87.11.1773
Garcia, S. E. (2018, September 5). Goop agrees to pay $145,000 for ‘unsubstantiated’ claims about vaginal eggs. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/05/business/goop-vaginal-egg-settlement.html
Gauchat, G. (2012). Politicization of science in the public sphere: A study of public trust in the United States, 1974–2010. American Sociological Review, 77(2) 167–187. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122412438225
Geary, K. (2021). Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act, product liability, and a proposal for preventing dating-app harassment. Penn State Law Review, 125(2), 4. https://elibrary.law.psu.edu/pslr/vol125/iss2/4
Gee, G. C., & Ford, C. L. (2011). Structural racism and health inequites: Old issues, new directions. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 8(1), 115–132. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742058X11000130
Gentzkow, M., & Shapiro, J. M. (2011). Ideological segregation online and offline. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 126(4), 1799–1839. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr044
George, S., Duran, N., & Norris, K. (2014). A systematic review of barriers and facilitators to minority research participation among African Americans, Latinos, Asian Americans, and Pacific Islanders. American Journal of Public Health, 104(2), e16–31. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301706
Gerson, D., Chen, N. T. N., Wenzel, A., Ball-Rokeach, S., & Parks, M. (2020). From audience to reporter: Recruiting and training community members at a participatory news site serving a multiethnic city. In M. Wall (Ed.), Mapping Citizen and Participatory Journalism in Newsrooms, Classrooms and Beyond (pp. 203–221). Routledge.
Gerts, D., Shelley, C. D., Parikh, N., Pitts, T., Watson Ross, C., Fairchild, G., Chavez, N. Y. V., & Daughton, A. R. (2021). “Thought I’d share first” and other conspiracy theory tweets from the COVID-19 infodemic: Exploratory study. JMIR Public Health and Surveillance, 7(4), e26527. https://doi.org/10.2196/26527
Gidengil, C., Goetz, M. B., Newberry, S., Maglione, M., Hall, O., Larkin, J., Motala, A., & Hempel, S. (2021). Safety of vaccines used for routine immunization in the United States: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Vaccine, 39(28), 3696–3716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.03.079
Gillespie, T. (2018). Custodians of the internet: Platforms, content moderation, and the hidden decisions that shape social media. Yale University Press.
Gillett, R., Gray, J. E., & Valdovinos Kaye, D. B. (2023). ‘Just a little hack’: Investigating cultures of content moderation circumvention by Facebook users. New Media & Society, 26(11), 6183–6204. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221147661
Gisondi, M. A., Barber, R., Faust, J. S., Raja, A., Strehlow, M. C., Westafer, L. M., & Gottlieb, M. (2022). A deadly infodemic: Social media and the power of COVID-19 misinformation. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 24(2), e35552. https://doi.org/10.2196/35552
Gitlin, T. (2007). Media unlimited: How the torrent of images and sounds overwhelms our lives. Henry Holt & Company.
Giusti, K., Hamermesh, R. G., & Krasnow, M. (2021, June 11). Addressing demographic disparities in clinical trials. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2021/06/addressing-demographic-disparities-in-clinical-trials
Givel, M. (2007). Consent and counter-mobilization: The case of the national smokers alliance. Journal of Health Communication, 12(4), 339–357. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730701326002
Givel, M. S., & Glantz, S. A. (2001). Tobacco lobby political influence on US state legislatures in the 1990s. Tobacco Control, 10(2), 124–134. https://doi.org/10.1136/tc.10.2.124
Global Disinformation Index. (2019, September 1). The quarter billion dollar question: How is disinformation gaming ad tech? Global Disinformation Index. https://disinformationindex.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/GDI_Ad-tech_Report_Screen_AW16.pdf
Godel, W., Sanderson, Z., Aslett, K., Nagler, J., Bonneau, R., Persily, N., & Tucker, J. A. (2021). Moderating with the mob: Evaluating the efficacy of real-time crowdsourced fact-checking. Journal of Online Trust and Safety, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.54501/jots.v1i1.15
Goel, P., Green, J., Lazer, D., & Resnik, P. (2023). Mainstream news articles co-shared with fake news buttress misinformation narratives. arXiv. http://arxiv.org/abs/2308.06459
Goldenberg, M. J. (2016). Public misunderstanding of science? Reframing the problem of vaccine hesitancy. Perspectives on Science, 24(5), 552–581. https://doi.org/10.1162/POSC_a_00223
Goldman, A. I. (1999). Knowledge in a social world. Oxford University Press.
Goldman, E. (2021). Content moderation remedies. Michigan Technical Law Review, 28, 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3810580
Golebiewski, M., & boyd, d. (2019). Data voids: Where missing data can easily be exploited. Data & Society. https://datasociety.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Data-Voids-2.0-Final.pdf
Gollust, S. E., Hull, S. C., & Wilfond, B. S. (2002). Limitations of direct-to-consumer advertising for clinical genetic testing. JAMA, 288(14), 1762–1767. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.288.14.1762
González-Bailón, S., Lazer, D., Barberá, P., Zhang, M., Allcott, H., Brown, T., Crespo-Tenorio, A., Freelon, D., Gentzkow, M., Guess, A. M., Iyengar, S., Kim, Y. M., Malhotra, N., Moehler, D., Nyhan, B., Pan, J., Rivera, C. V., Settle, J., Thorson, E., Tromble, R., Wilkins, A., Wojcieszak, M., de Jonge, C. K., Franco, A., Mason, W., Stroud., N. J., & Tucker, J. A. (2023). Asymmetric ideological segregation in exposure to political news on Facebook. Science, 381(6656), 392–398. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ade7138
González-Bailón, S., & Lelkes, Y. (2022) Do social media undermine social cohesion? A critical review. Social Issues and Policy Review, 17(1), 155–180. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12091
Goss, B. M. (2023). Introducing sham journalism: A case-study analysis of Newsmax’ Discourse on Special Counsel John Durham in 2022. Journalism Practice, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2023.2202194
Goulbourne, T., & Yanovitzky, I. (2021). The communication infrastructure as a social determinant of health: Implications for health policymaking and practice. The Milbank Quarterly, 99(1), 24–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.12496
Gould, S. J. (1996). The mismeasure of man. W. W. Norton & Company.
Grady, R. H., Ditto, P. H., & Loftus, E. F. (2021). Nevertheless partisanship persisted: Fake news warnings help briefly, but bias returns with time. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 6, 52. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-021-00315-z
Grant, R., & Mislán, C. 2020. “Improving the race”: The discourse of science and eugenics in local news coverage, 1905-1922. American Journalism, 37(4), 476–499. https://doi.org/10.1080/08821127.2020.1830627
Granter, S. R., & Papke Jr., D. J. (2018). Opinion: Medical misinformation in the era of Google: Computational approaches to a pervasive problem. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(25), 6318–6321. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1808264115
Green, J., Druckman, J. N., Baum, M. A., Lazer, D., Ognyanova, K., Simonson, M. D., Lin, J., Santillana, M., & Perlis, R. H. (2023a). Using general messages to persuade on a politicized scientific issue. British Journal of Political Science, 53(2), 698–706. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123422000424
Green, M. C., & Brock, T. C. (2000). The role of transportation in the persuasiveness of public narratives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 701–721. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.701
Green, M. C., Garst, J., & Brock, T. C. (2003). The power of fiction: Determinants and boundaries. In L. J. Shrum (Ed.), The psychology of entertainment media: Blurring the lines between entertainment and persuasion (pp. 169–184). Erlbaum Psych Press.
Green, Y., Gully, A., Roth, Y., Roy, A., Tucker, J. A., & Wanless, A. (2023b, January). Evidence-based misinformation interventions: Challenges and opportunities for measurement and collaboration. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/2023/01/09/evidence-based-misinformation-interventions-challenges-and-opportunities-for-measurement-and-collaboration-pub-88661
Greenhalgh, T. (2020). Will COVID-19 be evidence-based medicine’s nemesis? PLoS Medicine, 17(6), e1003266. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003266
Greenhalgh, T., Fisman, D., Cane, D. J., Oliver, M., & Macintyre, C. R. (2022). Adapt or die: How the pandemic made the shift from EBM to EBM+ more urgent. BMJ Evidence-Based Medicine, 27(5), 253–260. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjebm-2022-111952
Greiner, A., Smith, K. C., & Guallar, E. (2010). Something fishy? News media presentation of complex health issues related to fish consumption guidelines. Public Health Nutrition, 13(11), 1786–1794. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980010000923
Grimmelmann, J. (2015). The virtues of moderation. Yale Journal of Law and Technology, 17(42), 42–109.
Grinberg, N., Joseph, K., Friedland, L., Swire-Thompson, B., & Lazer, D. (2019). Fake news on Twitter during the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Science, 363(6425), 374–378. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau2706
Gruzd, A., Abul-Fottouh, D., Song, M. Y., & Saiphoo, A. (2023). From Facebook to YouTube: The potential exposure to COVID-19 anti-vaccine videos on social media. Social Media+ Society, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051221150403
Grzesiak-Feldman, M. (2013). The effect of high-anxiety situations on conspiracy thinking. Current Psychology, 32, 100–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-013-9165-6
Gu, J., Dor, A., Li, K., Broniatowski, D. A., Hatheway, M., Fritz, L., & Abroms, L. C. (2022). The impact of Facebook’s vaccine misinformation policy on user endorsements of vaccine content: An interrupted time series analysis. Vaccine, 40(14), 2209–2214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.02.062
Guenther, L. (2019). Science journalism. In H. Örnebring (Ed.), The Oxford encyclopedia of journalism studies. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.901.
Guess, A., Aslett, K., Tucker, J., Bonneau, R., & Nagler, J. (2021). Cracking open the news feed: Exploring what us Facebook users see and share with large-scale platform data. Journal of Quantitative Description: Digital Media, 1. https://doi.org/10.51685/jqd.2021.006
Guess, A., Nagler, J., & Tucker, J. (2019). Less than you think: Prevalence and predictors of fake news dissemination on Facebook. Science Advances, 5(1), eaau4586. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aau4586
Guess, A., Nyhan, B., Lyons, B., & Reifler, J. (2018a). Avoiding the echo chamber about echo chambers: Why selective exposure to like-minded political news is less prevalent than you think. Knight Foundation. https://kf-site-production.s3.amazonaws.com/media_elements/files/000/000/133/original/Topos_KF_White-Paper_Nyhan_V1.pdf
Guess, A., Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2018b). Selective exposure to misinformation: Evidence from the consumption of fake news during the 2016 US presidential campaign. European Research Council. https://about.fb.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/fake-news-2016.pdf
Guess, A. M. (2021). (Almost) everything in moderation: New evidence on Americans’ online media diets. American Journal of Political Science, 65(4), 1007–1022. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12589
Guess, A. M., Lerner, M., Lyons, B., Montgomery, J. M., Nyhan, B., Reifler, J., & Sircar, N. (2020). A digital media literacy intervention increases discernment between mainstream and false news in the United States and India. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(27), 15536–15545 https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1920498117
Guess, A. M., & Lyons, B. A. (2020). Misinformation, disinformation, and online propaganda. In N. Persily & J. A. Tucker (Eds.), Social media and democracy: The state of the field and prospects for reform. Cambridge University Press
Guidry, J. P. D., Vraga, E. K., Laestadius, L. I., Miller, C. A., Occa, A., Nan, X., Ming, H. M., Qin, Y., Fuemmeler, B. F., & Carlyle, K. E. (2020). HPV vaccine searches on Pinterest: Before and after Pinterest’s actions to moderate content. American Journal of Public Health, 110(S3), S305–S311. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305827
Habermas, J. (1970). Towards a rational society. Beacon Press.
Habgood-Coote, J. (2019). Stop talking about fake news! Inquiry, 62(9–10), 1033–1065. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020174X.2018.1508363
Hadland, S. E., Rivera-Aguirre, A., Marshall, B. D., & Cerdá, M. (2019). Association of pharmaceutical industry marketing of opioid products with mortality from opioid-related overdoses. JAMA Network Open, 2(1), e186007–e186007. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.6007
Hagar, N., & Diakopoulos, N. (2019). Optimizing content with A/B headline testing: Changing newsroom practices. Media and Communication, 7(1), 117–127. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v7i1.1801
Haglin, K. (2017). The limitations of the backfire effect. Research & Politics, 4(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168017716547
Hall, V., Banerjee, E., Kenyon, C., Strain, A., Griffith, J., Como-Sabetti, K., Heath, J., Bahta, L., Martin, K., McMahon, M., Johnson, D., Roddy, M., Dunn, D., & Ehresmann, K. (2017). Measles outbreak—Minnesota April–May 2017. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 66(27), 713–717. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6627a1
Hameleers, M. (2023). The (un)intended consequences of emphasizing the threats of mis- and disinformation. Media and Communication, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v11i2.6301
Hameleers, M., & van der Meer, T. G. L. A. (2020). Misinformation and polarization in a high-choice media environment: How effective are political fact-checkers? Communication Research, 47(2), 227–250. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650218819671
Hamilton, L. C., & Safford, T. G. (2021). Elite cues and the rapid decline in trust in science agencies on COVID-19. Sociological Perspectives, 64(5), 988–1011. https://doi.org/10.1177/07311214211022391
Hampton, K. N., Shin, I., & Lu, W. (2017). Social media and political discussion: When online presence silences offline conversation. Information, Communication & Society, 20(7), 1090–1107. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2016.1218526
Han, C., Kumar, D., & Durumeric, Z. (2022, May). On the infrastructure providers that support misinformation websites. In C. Budak, M. Cha, & D. Quercia (Eds.), Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media, 16(1), 287–298. https://doi.org/10.1609/icwsm.v16i1.19292
Han, R. (2015). Manufacturing consent in cyberspace: China’s “fifty-cent army”. Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 44(2), 105–134. https://doi.org/10.1177/18681026150440020
Hansson, S. O. (2017). Science denial as a form of pseudoscience. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A, 63, 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2017.05.002
Harris, Y., Gorelick, P. B., Samuels, P., & Bempong, I. (1996). Why African Americans may not be participating in clinical trials. Journal of the National Medical Association, 88(10), 630–634.
Hart, P. S., Chinn, S., & Soroka, S. (2020). Politicization and polarization in COVID-19 News coverage. Science Communication, 42(5), 679–697. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547020950735
Hasebrink, U., & Popp, J. 2006. Media repertoires as a result of selective media use. A conceptual approach to the analysis of patterns of exposure. Communications 31(3), 369–387. https://doi.org/10.1515/COMMUN.2006.023
Hassan, A. I., Raman, A., Castro, I., Zia, H. B., De Cristofaro, E., Sastry, N., & Tyson, G. (2021, December). Exploring content moderation in the decentralised web: The pleroma case. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Emerging Networking EXperiments and Technologies (pp. 328–335). https://doi.org/10.1145/3485983.3494838
Haughey, M. M., Povolo, M., & Starbird, K. (2022). Bridging contextual and methodological gaps on the “misinformation beat”: Insights from journalist-researcher collaborations at speed. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Article 244. https://doi.org/10.1145/3491102.3517503
Hawkins, S. A., & Hoch, S. J. (1992). Low-involvement learning: Memory without evaluation. Journal of Consumer Research, 19(2), 212–225. https://doi.org/10.1086/209297
Hayes, D., & Lawless, J. L. (2021). News hole: The demise of local journalism and political engagement. Cambridge University Press.
Head, M. L., Holman, L., Lanfear, R., Kahn, A. T., & Jennions, M. D. (2015). The extent and consequences of p-hacking in science. PLoS Biology, 13(3), e1002106. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1002106
Heaven, W. D. (2022, November 18). Why Meta’s latest large language model survived only three days online. MIT Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview.com/2022/11/18/1063487/meta-large-language-model-ai-only-survived-three-days-gpt-3-science/
Heller, J. (2015). Rumors and realities: Making sense of HIV/AIDS conspiracy narratives and contemporary legends. American Journal of Public Health, 105(1), e43–e50. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302284
Helm, R. K., & Nasu, H. (2021). Regulatory responses to ‘fake news’ and freedom of expression: Normative and empirical evaluation. Human Rights Law Review, 21(2), 302–328. https://doi.org/10.1093/hrlr/ngaa060
Henderson, E. L., Westwood, S. J., & Simons, D. J. (2022). A reproducible systematic map of research on the illusory truth effect. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 29(3), 1065–1088. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-021-01995-w
Hendrix, J. (2022). What’s next for the digital services act. Tech Policy Press. https://www.techpolicy.press/whats-next-for-the-digital-services-act/
Hennekens, C. H., Rane, M., Solano, J., Alter, S., Johnson, H., Krishnaswamy, S., Shih, R., Maki, D., & DeMets, D. L. (2022). Updates on hydroxychloroquine in prevention and treatment of COVID-19. The American Journal of Medicine, 135(1), 7–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2021.07.035
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). Most people are not WEIRD. Nature, 466(7302), 29. https://doi.org/10.1038/466029a
Henry, A. D. (2017). Network segregation and policy learning. In J. N. Victor, A. H. Montgomery, & M. Lubell (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of political networks (pp. 559–588). Oxford University Press.
Henry, A. D., Dietz, T., & Sweeney, R. L. (2021). Coevolution of networks and beliefs in US environmental risk policy. Policy Studies Journal, 49(3), 675–702. https://doi.org/10.1111/psj.12407
Herasimenka, A., Au, Y., George, A., Joynes-Burgess, K., Knuutila, A., Bright, J., & Howard, P. N. (2023). The political economy of digital profiteering: Communication resource mobilization by anti-vaccination actors. Journal of Communication, 73(2), 126–137. https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqac043
Herbst, R. S., Hatsukami, D., Acton, D., Giuliani, M., Moushey, A., Phillips, J., Sherwood, S., Toll, B. A., Viswanath, K., Warren, N. J. H., Warren, G. W., & Alberg, A. J. (2022). Electronic nicotine delivery systems: An updated policy statement from the American Association for Cancer Research and the American Society of Clinical Oncology. Clinical Cancer Research, 28(22), 4861–4870. https://doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-22-2429
Hern, A. (2020, June 11). Twitter aims to limit people sharing articles they have not read. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/jun/11/twitter-aims-to-limit-people-sharing-articles-they-have-not-read
Hevner, A. R., March, S. T., Park, J., & Ram, S. (2004). Design science in information systems research. MIS Quarterly, 28(1), 75–105. https://doi.org/10.5555/2017212.2017217
Himelboim, I. (2017). Social network analysis (social media). In J. Matthes (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of communication research methods. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Hindman, M. (2010). The myth of digital democracy. Princeton University Press.
Hinojosa, L., Riedy, R., Polman, J., Swanson, R., Nuessle, T., & Garneau, N. (2021). Expanding public participation in science practices beyond data collection. Citizen Science: Theory & Practice, 6(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.5334/cstp.292
Hlubocky, F. J., McFarland, D. F., Spears, P. A., Smith, L., Patten, B., Peppercorn, J., & Holcombe, R. (2020). Direct-to-consumer advertising for cancer centers and institutes: Ethical dilemmas and practical implications. American Society of Clinical Oncology Educational Book, 40, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1200/EDBK_279963
Hocevar, K. P., Metzger, M., & Flanagin, A. J. (2017). Source credibility, expertise, and trust in health and risk messaging. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.287
Hoes, E., Aitken, B., Zhang, J., Gackowski, T., & Wojcieszak, M. (2024). Prominent misinformation interventions reduce misperceptions but increase scepticism. Nature Human Behaviour, 8(8), 1545–1553. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-024-01884-x
Hoffman, B. L., Felter, E. M., Chu, K. H., Shensa, A., Hermann, C., Wolynn, T., Williams, D., & Primack, B. A. (2019). It’s not all about autism: The emerging landscape of anti-vaccination sentiment on Facebook. Vaccine, 37(16), 2216–2223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.03.003
Hoffman, B. L., Hoffman, R., VonVille, H. M., Sidani, J. E., Manganello, J. A., Chu, K.-H., Felter, E M., Miller, E., & Burke, J. G. (2023). Characterizing the influence of television health entertainment narratives in lay populations: A scoping review. American Journal of Health Promotion, 37(5), 685–697. https://doi.org/10.1177/08901171221141080
Hoffman, K. M., Trawalter, S., Axt, J. R., & Oliver, M. N. (2016). Racial bias in pain assessment and treatment recommendations, and false beliefs about biological differences between blacks and whites. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(16), 4296–4301. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1516047113
Hofstadter, R. (1964, November). The paranoid style in American politics. Harper’s Magazine. https://harpers.org/archive/1964/11/the-paranoid-style-in-american-politics/
Hofstetter, C. R., Barker, D., Smith, J. T., Zari, G. M., & Ingrassia, T. A. (1999). Information, misinformation, and political talk radio. Political Research Quarterly, 52(2), 353–369. https://doi.org/10.2307/449222
Holder, F., Mirza, S., Namson-Ngo-Lee, Carbone, J., & McKie, R. E. 2023. Climate obstruction and Facebook advertising: How a sample of climate obstruction organizations use social media to disseminate discourses of delay. Climatic Change, 176, 16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-023-03494-4
Hollon, M. F. (1999). Direct-to-consumer marketing of prescription drugs: Creating consumer demand. JAMA, 281(4), 382–384. https://doi.org/10-1001/pubs.JAMA-ISSN-0098-7484-281-4-jcv80002
Holman, E. A., Garfin, D. R., & Silver, R. C. (2024). It matters what you see: Graphic media images of war and terror may amplify distress. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 121(29), e2318465121. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2318465121
Holmes, E. N. (2023, October 12). Liability for algorithmic recommendations (Report No. R47753). Congressional Research Service. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47753
Holt, L. F., Kjærvik, S. L., & Bushman, B. J. (2022). Harming and shaming through naming: Examining why calling the Coronavirus the “COVID-19 Virus,” not the “Chinese Virus,” matters. Media Psychology, 25(5), 639–652. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2022.2034021
Hornik, R., Woko, C., Siegel, L., KIm, K., Kikut, A., Jesch, E., & Clark, D. (2020). What beliefs are associated with COVID vaccination intentions? Implications for campaign planning. PsyArXiv Preprints. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/t3kyx
Houn, F., Bober, M. A., Huerta, E. E., Hursting, S. D., Lemon, S., & Weed, D. L. (1995). The association between alcohol and breast cancer: Popular press coverage of research. American Journal of Public Health, 85(8, pt. 1), 1082–1086. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.85.8_pt_1.1082
Hua, Y., Horta Ribeiro, M., Ristenpart, T., West, R., & Naaman, M. (2022). Characterizing alternative monetization strategies on YouTube. In Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 6(CSCW2). https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2203.10143
Hughes, B., Miller-Idriss, C., Piltch-Loeb, R., Goldberg, B., White, K., Criezis, M., & Savoia, E. (2021). Development of a codebook of online anti-vaccination rhetoric to manage COVID-19 vaccine misinformation. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(14), 7556. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147556
Hughes, H. C., & Waismel-Manor, I. (2021). The Macedonian fake news industry and the 2016 US election. Political Science & Politics, 54(1), 19–23. https://doi.org/10.1017/
Hyland, K., & Jiang, F. (2021). ‘Our striking results demonstrate …’: Persuasion and the growth of academic hype. Journal of Pragmatics, 182, 189–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2021.06.018
Imhoff, R., & Lamberty, P. K. (2017). Too special to be duped: Need for uniqueness motivates conspiracy beliefs. European Journal of Social Psychology, 47(6), 724–734. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2265
Institute of Medicine. (2003). Unequal treatment: Confronting racial and ethnic disparities in health care. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/12875
___. (2004). Immunization safety review: Vaccines and autism. National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/10997
Interactive Advertising Bureau. (2020, December). Understanding brand safety & brand suitability in a contemporary media landscape. https://www.iab.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/IAB_Brand_Safety_and_Suitability_Guide_2020-12.pdf
Ioannidis, J. P., Stuart, M. E., Brownlee, S., & Strite, S. A. (2017). How to survive the medical misinformation mess. European Journal of Clinical Investigation, 47(11), 795–802. https://doi.org/10.1111/eci.12834
Iqbal, H. (2021, February 1). How the CIA’s fake Hepatitis B vaccine program in Pakistan helped fuel vaccine distrust. Vox. https://www.vox.com/first-person/22256595/vaccine-covid-pakistan-cia-program
Irfan A., Bieniek-Tobasco A., & Golembeski C. (2021). Pandemic of racism: Public health implications of political misinformation. Harvard Public Health Review, 26. https://doi.org/10.54111/0001/Z6
Iskiev, M. (2023). The way people search the web is changing: 4 stats marketers & SEOs should know. HubSpot Data. https://blog.hubspot.com/marketing/how-search-behaviors-are-changing
Iyengar, S., Lelkes, Y., Levendusky, M., Malhotra, N., & Westwood, S. J. (2019). The origins and consequences of affective polarization in the United States. Annual Review of Political Science, 22, 129–146. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-051117-073034
Jaafar, M., Vafamansouri, R., Tareen, M., Kamel, D., Ayroso, V. C., Tareen, F., & Spielman, A. I. (2021). Elixirs of the past: Quackery, claims and cures - snake oil and Indian liniment. Journal of the History of Dentistry, 69(3), 205–215.
Jacques, P. J., Dunlap, R. E., & Freeman, M. (2008). The organisation of denial: Conservative think tanks and environmental scepticism. Environmental Politics, 17(3), 349–385. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644010802055576
Jain, A., Marshall, J., Buikema, A., Bancroft, T., Kelly, J. P., & Newschaffer, C. J. (2015). Autism occurrence by MMR vaccine status among US children with older siblings with and without autism. JAMA, 313(15), 1534–1540. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.3077
Jaiswal, J., LoSchiavo, C., & Perlman, D. C. (2020). Disinformation, misinformation and inequality-driven mistrust in the time of COVID-19: Lessons unlearned from AIDS denialism. AIDS and Behavior, 24, 2776–2780. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-020-02925-y
Jamison, A. M., Broniatowski, D. A., Dredze, M., Wood-Doughty, Z., Khan, D., & Quinn, S. C. (2019a). Vaccine-related advertising in the Facebook Ad Archive. Vaccine, 38(3), 512–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.10.066
Jamison, A. M., Quinn, S. C., & Freimuth, V. S. (2019b). “You don’t trust a government vaccine”: Narratives of institutional trust and influenza vaccination among African American and white adults. Social Science & Medicine, 221, 87–94. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.12.020
Jang, S. M. (2014). Seeking congruency or incongruency online? Examining selective exposure to four controversial science issues. Science Communication, 36(2), 143–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/107554701350273
Jenke, L. (2023). Affective polarization and misinformation belief. Political Behavior, 46, 825–884. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-022-09851-w
Jhaver, S., Boylston, C., Yang, D., & Bruckman, A. (2021). Evaluating the effectiveness of deplatforming as a moderation strategy on Twitter. In Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 5(CSCW2), Article 381. https://doi.org/10.1145/3479525
Joelving, F. (2023, October 6). Signs of undeclared ChatGPT use in papers mounting. Retraction Watch. https://retractionwatch.com/2023/10/06/signs-of-undeclared-chatgpt-use-in-papers-mounting/
Johansen, N., Marjanovic, S. V., Kjaer, C. V., Baglini, R. B., & Adler-Nissen, R. (2022). Ridiculing the “tinfoil hats:” Citizen responses to COVID-19 misinformation in the Danish facemask debate on Twitter. Harvard Misinformation Review, 3(2). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-93
Johnson, C., & Marcellino, W. (2021). Bad actors in news reporting: tracking news manipulation by state actors. RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA112-21.html
Johnson, M. K., Hashtroudi, S., & Lindsay, D. S. (1993). Source monitoring. Psychological Bulletin, 114(1), 3–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.114.1.3
Johnson, N. F., Leahy, R., Restrepo, N. J., Velasquez, N., Zheng, M., Manrique, P., Devkota, P., & Wuchty, S. (2019). Hidden resilience and adaptive dynamics of the global online hate ecology. Nature, 573, 261–265. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1494-7
Johnson, N. F., Velásquez, N., Restrepo, N. J., Leahy, R., Gabriel, N., El Oud, S., Zheng, M., Manrique, P., Wuchty, S., & Lupu, Y. (2020). The online competition between pro- and anti-vaccination views. Nature, 582(7811), 230–233. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2281-1
Johnson, S. (1773). Misinformation, n.s. In A dictionary of the English language. https://johnsonsdictionaryonline.com/1773/misinformation_ns
Johnson, S. B., Park, H. S., Gross, C. P., & Yu, J. B. (2018). Use of alternative medicine for cancer and its impact on survival. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 110(1), 121–124. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djx145
Johnson, S. B., Parsons, M., Dorff, T., Moran, M. S., Ward, J. H., Cohen, S. A., Akerley, W., Bauman, J., Hubbard, J., Spratt, D. E., Bylund, C. L., Swire-Thompson, B., Onega, T., Scherer, L. D., Tward, J., & Fagerlin, A. (2022). Cancer misinformation and harmful information on Facebook and other social media: A brief report. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 114(7), 1036–1039. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djab141
Johnson, T. (2023). Cable news ratings 2023: Fox News dominates, but MSNBC is only major network with year-over-year audience growth. Deadline. https://deadline.com/2023/12/cable-news-ratings-2023-1235682966/
Johnston, K. L. (2021, April 21). Vietnamese Americans say their parents are falling for videos pushing COVID misinformation. BuzzFeed News. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/katejohnston2/vietnamese-american-youtube-misinformation-covid-vaccine
Jolley, D., & Douglas, K. M. (2014). The effects of anti-vaccine conspiracy theories on vaccination intentions. PLoS One, 9(2), e89177. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089177
___. (2017). Prevention is better than cure: Addressing anti-vaccine conspiracy theories. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 47(8), 459–469. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12453
Jolley, D., & Paterson, J. L. (2020). Pylons ablaze: Examining the role of 5G COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs and support for violence. British Journal of Social Psychology, 59(3), 628–640. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12394
Jones, D. (2024, February 12). How journals are fighting back against a wave of questionable images. Nature News Explainer. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-00372-6
Joshi, G., Srivastava, A., Yagnik, B., Hasan, M., Saiyed, Z., Gabralla, L. A., Abraham, A., Walambe, R., & Kotecha, K. (2023). Explainable misinformation detection across multiple social media platforms. IEEE Access, 11, 23634–23646. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3251892
Jost, J. T., Baldassarri, D. S., & Druckman, J. N. (2022). Cognitive–motivational mechanisms of political polarization in social-communicative contexts. Nature Reviews Psychology, 1(10), 560–576. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-022-00093-5
Judge, M., Kashima, Y., Steg, L., & Dietz, T. (2023). Environmental decision-making in times of polarization. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 48(1), 477–503. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-112321-115339
Jurecic, Q. (2023, March 23). The professional price of falsehoods. Knight First Amendment Institute at Columbia University. https://knightcolumbia.org/content/the-professional-price-of-falsehoods
Kahan, D. M., Peters, E., Wittlin, M., Slovic, P., Ouellette, L. L., Braman, D., & Mandel, G. (2012). The polarizing impact of science literacy and numeracy on perceived climate change risks. Nature Climate Change, 2, 732–735. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1547
Kalichman, S. C., Eaton, L. A., Earnshaw, V. A., & Brousseau, N. (2022). Faster than warp speed: Early attention to COVD-19 by anti-vaccine groups on Facebook. Journal of Public Health, 44(1), e96–e105. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdab093
Kata, A. (2010). A postmodern Pandora’s box: Anti-vaccination misinformation on the Internet. Vaccine, 28(7), 1709–1716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.12.022
___. (2012). Anti-vaccine activists, Web 2.0, and the postmodern paradigm–An overview of tactics and tropes used online by the anti-vaccination movement. Vaccine, 30(25), 3778–3789. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.11.112
Katz, A. J. (2023, January 3). These are the top-rated cable news shows of 2022. TVNewser. https://www.adweek.com/tvnewser/these-are-the-top-rated-cable-news-shows-of-2022/521247/#
Kauanui, J. K. (2008). Hawaiian blood: Colonialism and the politics of sovereignty and indigeneity. Duke University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv120qr70
Kavanagh, J., & Rich, M. D. (2018, January). Truth decay: An initial exploration of the diminishing role of facts and analysis in American public life. RAND Corporation. https://doi.org/10.7249/RR2314
Kearns, C. E., Schmidt, L. A., & Glantz, S. A. (2016). Sugar industry and coronary heart disease research: A historical analysis of internal industry documents. JAMA Internal Medicine, 176(11), 1680–1685. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.5394
Keene Woods, N., Ali, U., Medina, M., Reyes, J., & Chesser, A. K. (2023). Health literacy, health outcomes and equity: A trend analysis based on a population survey. Journal of Primary Care & Community Health, 14. https://doi.org/10.1177/2150131923115613
Kemp, E., Trigg, J., Beatty, L., Christensen, C., Dhillon, H. M., Maeder, A., Williams, P. A. H., & Koczwara, B. (2021). Health literacy, digital health literacy and the implementation of digital health technologies in cancer care: The need for a strategic approach. Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 32(S1), 104–114. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/hpja.387
Kendeou, P., Butterfuss, R., Kim, J., & Van Boekel, M. (2019). Knowledge revision through the lenses of the three-pronged approach. Memory & Cognition, 47, 33–46. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-018-0848-y
Kendeou, P., Smith, E. R., & O’Brien, E. J. (2013). Updating during reading comprehension: Why causality matters. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 39(3), 854–865. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029468
Khan, Y. H., Mallhi, T. H., Alotaibi, N. H., Alzarea, A. I., Alanazi, A. S., Tanveer, N., & Hashmi, F. K. (2020). Threat of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in Pakistan: The need for measures to neutralize misleading narratives. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 103(2), 603–604. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.20-0654
Kharazian, Z., Jalbert, M., Dash, S., Memon, S. A., Starbird, K., Spiro, E. S., & West, J. D. (2024, January 24). Our field was built on decades-old bodies of research across a range of disciplines. It wasn’t invented by a ‘class of misinformation experts’ in 2016. University of Washington Center for an Informed Public. https://www.cip.uw.edu/2024/01/24/misinformation-field-research/
Kim, E., Shepherd, M. E., & Clinton, J. D. (2020a). The effect of big-city news on rural America during the COVID-19 pandemic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(36), 22009–22014. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2009384117
Kim, J. J., Um, R. S., Lee, J. W., & Ajilore, O. (2024). Generative AI can fabricate advanced scientific visualizations: ethical implications and strategic mitigation framework. AI and Ethics, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-024-00439-0
Kim, J. W., & Kim, E. (2019). Identifying the effect of political rumor diffusion using variations in survey timing. Quarterly Journal of Political Science, 14(3), 293–311. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3133334
Kim, J. Y., & Kesari, A. (2021). Misinformation and hate speech: The case of anti-Asian hate speech during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Online Trust and Safety, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.54501/jots.v1i1.13
Kim, S., Yalcin, O. F., Bestvater, S. E., Munger, K., Monroe, B. L., & Desmarais, B. A. (2020b, May). The effects of an informational intervention on attention to anti-vaccination content on YouTube. In Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media, 14(1), 949–953. https://doi.org/10.1609/icwsm.v14i1.7364
Kim, S. A. (2017). Social media algorithms: Why you see what you see. Georgetown Law Technology Review, 2(1), 147–154. https://perma.cc/J3LD-DX2
Kim, S. J. (2016). A repertoire approach to cross-platform media use behavior. New Media & Society, 18(3), 353–372. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814543162
King, G., & Persily, N. (2020). A new model for industry–academic partnerships. Political Science & Politics, 53(4), 703–709. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096519001021
Kington, R. S., Arnesen, S., Chou, W.-Y. S., Curry, S. J., Lazer, D., & Villarruel, A. M. (2021). Identifying credible sources of health information in social media: Principles and attributes (Discussion Paper). NAM Perspectives. National Academy of Medicine. https://doi.org/10.31478/202107a
Kirby, D. A. (2013). Forensic fictions: Science, television production, and modern storytelling. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 44(1), 92–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2012.09.007
___. (2017). The changing popular images of science. In K. H. Jamieson, D. Kahan, & D. A. Scheufele (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of the science of science communication (pp. 291–300). Oxford University Press.
Klinenberg, D. (2024). Does deplatforming work? Journal of Conflict Resolution, 68(6), 1199–1225. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220027231188909
Klitzman, R. (2022). Needs to address clinicians’ moral distress in treating unvaccinated COVID-19 patients. BMC Medical Ethics, 23, 110. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-022-00859-9
Knudsen, J., Perlman-Gabel, M., Uccelli, I. G., Jeavons, J., & Chokshi, D. A. (2023). Combating misinformation as a core function of public health. NEJM Catalyst, 4(2), CAT.22.0198. https://doi.org/doi:10.1056/CAT.22.0198
Koehler, D. J. (2016). Can journalistic “false balance” distort public perception of consensus in expert opinion? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 22(1), 24–38. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000073
Kolis, J., Brookmeyer, K., Chuvileva, Y., Voegeli, C., Juma, S., Ishizumi, A., Renfro, K., Wilhelm, E., Tice, H., Fogarty, H., Kocer, I., Helms, J., & Verma, A. (2024). Infodemics and vaccine confidence: protocol for social listening and insight generation to inform action. JMIR Public Health and Surveillance, 10, e51909. https://doi.org/10.2196/51909
Kopans, D. B. (2024). More than a half century of misinformation about breast cancer screening. Radiologic Clinics of North America, 62(6), 993–1002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcl.2024.04.001
Korin, M. R., Araya, F., Idris, M. Y., Brown, H., & Claudio, L. (2022). Community-based organizations as effective partners in the battle against misinformation. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, 853736. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.853736
Korownyk, C., Kolber, M. R., McCormack, J., Lam, V., Overbo, K., Cotton, C., Finley, C., Turgeon, R. D., Garrison, S., Lindblad, A. J., Banh, H. L., Campbell-Scherer, D., Vandermeer, B., & Allan, G. M. (2014). Televised medical talk shows—What they recommend and the evidence to support their recommendations: A prospective observational study. British Medical Journal, 349, g7346. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g7346
Kowalski, P., & Taylor, A. K. (2017). Reducing students’ misconceptions with refutational teaching: For long-term retention, comprehension matters. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology, 3(2), 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000082
Kozyreva, A., Lorenz-Spreen, P., Herzog, S. M., Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Hertwig, R., Ali, A., Bak-Coleman, J., Barzilai, S., Basol, M., Berinsky, A. J., Betsch, C., Cook, J., Fazio, L. K., Geers, M., Guess, A. M., Huang, H., Larreguy, H., Maertens, R., Panizza, F., … Wineburg, S. (2024). Toolbox of individual-level interventions against online misinformation. Nature Human Behaviour, 8(6), 1044–1052. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-024-01881-0
Krafft, P., & Donovan, J. M. (2020). Disinformation by design: The use of evidence collages and platform filtering in a media manipulation campaign. Political Communication, 37(2), 194–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2019.1686094
Krause, N. M., Brossard, D., Scheufele, D. A., Xenos, M. A., & Franke, K. (2019). Trends: Americans’ trust in science and scientists. Public Opinion Quarterly, 83(4), 817–836. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfz041
Krause, N. M., Freiling, I., Beets, B., & Brossard, D. (2020). Fact-checking as risk communication: The multi-layered risk of misinformation in times of COVID-19. Journal of Risk Research, 23(7–8), 1052–1059. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2020.1756385
Krause, N. M., Freiling, I., & Scheufele, D. A. (2022). The “infodemic” infodemic: Toward a more nuanced understanding of truth-claims and the need for (not) combatting misinformation. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 700(1), 112–123. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027162221086263
Kreps, S., McCain, R. M., & Brundage, M. (2022). All the news that’s fit to fabricate: AI-generated text as a tool of media misinformation. Journal of Experimental Political Science, 9(1), 104–117. https://doi.org/10.1017/XPS.2020.37
Kriebel, D., Tickner, J., Epstein, P., Lemons, J., Levins, R., Loechler, E. L., Quinn, M., Rudel, R., Schettler, T., & Stoto, M. (2001). The precautionary principle in environmental science. Environmental Health Perspectives, 109(9), 871–876. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.01109871
Kümpel, A. S. (2020). The Matthew Effect in social media news use: Assessing inequalities in news exposure and news engagement on social network sites (SNS). Journalism, 21(8), 1083–1098. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884920915374
Kunda, Z. (1990). The case for motivated reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 108(3), 480–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480
Kuo, R., & Marwick, A. (2021). Critical disinformation studies: History, power, and politics. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 2(4), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-76
Kwon, J., Pelletiers, W., Galloway Peña, J., van Duin, D., Ledbetter, L., Baum, K., Ruffin, F., Knisely, J. M., Bizzell, E., Fowler Jr., V. G., Chambers, H. F., & Pettigrew, M. M. (2024). Participant diversity in United States randomized controlled trials of antibacterials for Staphylococcus aureus infections, 2000-2021. Clinical Infectious Disease: An Official Publication of The Infectious Diseases Society of America, 79(1), 141–147. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciae049
Lai, K., Xiong, X., Jiang, X., Sun, M., & He, L. (2020). Who falls for rumor? Influence of personality traits on false rumor belief. Personality and Individual Differences, 152, 109520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109520
Lai, W. Y. Y., & Lane, T. (2009). Characteristics of medical research news reported on front pages of newspapers. PLoS One, 4(7), e6103. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0006103
Landrum, A. R., Olshansky, A., & Richards, O. (2021). Differential susceptibility to misleading flat Earth arguments on YouTube. Media Psychology, 24(1), 136–165. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2019.1669461
Lantian, A., Muller, D., Nurra, C., & Douglas, K. M. (2017). “I know things they don’t know!”: The role of need for uniqueness in belief in conspiracy theories. Social Psychology, 48(3), 160–173. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000306
Larson, H. J., & Broniatowski, D. A. (2021). Why debunking misinformation is not enough to change people’s minds about vaccines. American Journal of Public Health, 111(6), 1058–1060. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306293
Larson, H. J., Cooper, L. Z., Eskola, J., Katz, S. L., & Ratzan, S. (2011). Addressing the vaccine confidence gap. The Lancet, 378(9790), 526–535. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60678-8
Latapí Agudelo, M. A., Jóhannsdóttir, L., & Davídsdóttir, B. (2019). A literature review of the history and evolution of corporate social responsibility. International Journal of Corporate Social Responsibility, 4(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40991-018-0039-y
Latkin, C. A., Dayton, L., Strickland, J. C., Colon, B., Rimal, R., & Boodram, B. (2020). An assessment of the rapid decline of trust in US sources of public information about COVID-19. Journal of Health Communication, 25(10), 764–773. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2020.1865487
Lazer, D. (2020). Studying human attention on the Internet. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(1), 21–22. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1919348117
Lazer, D., Baum, M. A., Benkler, Y., Berinsky, A. J., Greenhill, K. M., Menczer, F., Metzger, M. J., Nyhan, B., Pennycook, G., Rothschild, D., Schudson, M., Sloman, S. A., Sunstein, C. R., Thorson, E. A., Watts, D. J., & Zittrain, J. L. (2018). The science of fake news. Science, 359(6380), 1094–1096. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aao2998
Lazer, D., Ruck, D. J., Quintana, A., Shugars, S., Joseph, K., Grinberg, N., Gallagher, R. J., Horan, L., Gitomer, A., Bajak, A., Baum, M. A., Ognyanova, K., Qu, H., Hobbs, W. R., McCabe, S., & Green, J. (2020, October). COVID-19 fake news on Twitter. The state of the nation: A 5-state COVID-19 survey (Report No. 18). The COVID States Project. https://www.covidstates.org/reports/covid-19-fake-news-on-twitter
Leder, J., Schellinger, L., Maertens, R., Chryst, B., Linden, S., & Roozenbeek, J. (2023, September 24). Feedback exercises boost discernment and longevity for gamified misinformation interventions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 153(8), 2068–2087. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001603
Ledford, H. (2023). Researchers scramble as Twitter plans to end free data access. Nature, 614, 602–603. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-00460-z
Lee, A. Y., Moore, R. C., & Hancock, J. T. (2023, February 7). Designing misinformation interventions for all: Perspectives from AAPI, Black, Latino, and Native American community leaders on misinformation educational efforts. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 4(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-111
Lee, C., Yang, T., Inchoco, G. D., Jones, G. M., & Satyanarayan, A. (2021). Viral visualizations: How Coronavirus skeptics use orthodox data practices to promote unorthodox science online. In Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Article 607. https://doi.org/10.1145/3411764.3445211
Lee, D. (2019, July 8). Instagram now asks bullies: “Are you sure?” BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-48916828
Lee, E. W. J., & Viswanath, K. (2020). Big data in context: Addressing the twin perils of data absenteeism and chauvinism in the context of health disparities research. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(1), e16377. https://doi.org/10.2196/16377
Legg, T., Hatchard, J., & Gilmore, A. B. (2021). The science for profit model—how and why corporations influence science and the use of science in policy and practice. PLoS One, 16(6), e0253272. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253272
Lemaitre, T., Carrier, N., Farrands, A., Gosselin, V., Petit, G., & Gagneur, A. (2019). Impact of a vaccination promotion intervention using motivational interview techniques on long-term vaccine coverage: The PromoVac strategy. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, 15(3), 732–739. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2018.1549451
Leo, C. G., Sabina, S., Tumolo, M. R., Bodini, A., Ponzini, G., Sabato, E., & Mincarone, P. (2021). Burnout among healthcare workers in the COVID 19 era: A review of the existing literature. Frontiers in Public Health, 9, 750529. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.750529
Levendusky, M. (2013). How partisan media polarize America. University of Chicago Press.
Levinson-Waldman, R. (2011). Academic freedom and the public’s right to know: How to counter the chilling effect of FOIA requests on scholarship [Issue Brief]. American Constitution Society for Law and Policy. https://www.acslaw.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Levinson_-_ACS_FOIA_First_Amdmt_Issue_Brief_1.pdf
Levy, J., Bayes, R., Bolsen, T., & Druckman, J. N. (2021). Science and the politics of misinformation. In H. Tumber & S. Waisbord (Eds.), The Routledge companion to media disinformation and populism (pp. 231–241). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003004431
Lewandowsky, S. (2021a). Climate change disinformation and how to combat it. Annual Review of Public Health, 42, 1–21. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-090419-102409
___. (2021b). Liberty and the pursuit of science denial. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 42, 65–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2021.02.024
___. (2022). Fake news and participatory propaganda. In R. Pohl (Ed.), Cognitive illusions (pp. 324–340). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003154730-23
Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Ecker, U., Albarracín, D., Kendeou, P., Newman, E., Pennycook, G., Porter, E., Rand, D., Rapp, D., Reifler, J., Roozenbeek, J., Schmid, P., Seifert, C., Sinatra, G., Swire-Thompson, B., van der Linden, S., Wood, T., & Zaragoza, M. (2020). The debunking handbook 2020. Skeptical Science. https://skepticalscience.com/docs/DebunkingHandbook2020.pdf
Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., & Cook, J. (2017). Beyond misinformation: Understanding and coping with the “post-truth” era. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6(4), 353–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.07.008
Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., Cook, J., van der Linden, S., Roozenbeek, J., & Oreskes, N. (2023). Misinformation and the epistemic integrity of democracy. Current Opinion in Psychology, 54, 101711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101711
Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K., Seifert, C. M., Schwarz, N., & Cook, J. (2012). Misinformation and its correction: Continued influence and successful debiasing. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13(3), 106–131. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23484653
Lewandowsky, S., & Oberauer, K. (2016). Motivated rejection of science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25(4), 217–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721416654436
Lewandowsky, S., Oreskes, N., Risbey, J. S., Newell, B. R., & Smithson, M. (2015). Seepage: Climate change denial and its effect on the scientific community. Global Environmental Change, 33, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.02.013
Lewandowsky, S., & van der Linden, S. (2021). Countering misinformation and fake news through inoculation and prebunking. European Review of Social Psychology, 32(2), 348–384. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2021.1876983
Lewandowsky, S., & Whitmarsh, L. (2018). Climate communication for biologists: When a picture can tell a thousand words. PLoS Biology, 16(10), e2006004. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.2006004
Li, A., Deyrup, A. T., Graves, J. L., & Ross, L. F. (2022a). Race in the reading: A study of problematic uses of race and ethnicity in a prominent pediatrics textbook. Academic Medicine, 97, 1521–1527.
Li, H.O-Y., Bailey, A., Huynh, D., & Chan, J. (2020). YouTube as a source of information on COVID-19: A pandemic of misinformation? BMJ Global Health, 5(5), e002604. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-002604
Li, H.O-Y., Pastukhova, E., Brandts-Longtin, O., Tan, M. G., & Kirchhof, M. G. (2022b). YouTube as a source of misinformation on COVID-19 vaccination: A systematic analysis. BMJ Global Health, 7(3), e008334. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2021-008334
Liang, W., Zhang, Y., Wu, Z., Lepp, H., Ji, W., Zhao, X., Cho, H., Liiu, S., He, S., Huang, Z., Yang, D., Potts, C., Manning, C. D., & Zou, J. Y. (2024). Mapping the increasing use of LLMs in scientific papers. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2404.01268
Liedke, J., & Gottfried, J. (2022). U.S. adults under 30 now trust information from social media almost as much as from national news outlets. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/10/27/u-s-adults-under-30-now-trust-information-from-social-media-almost-as-much-as-from-national-news-outlets/
Light, N., Fernbach, P. M., Rabb, N., Geana, M. V., & Sloman, S. A. (2022). Knowledge overconfidence is associated with anti-consensus views on controversial scientific issues. Science Advances, 8(29), eabo0038. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abo0038
Lim, G., & Donovan, J. (2020). Detect, document, and debunk: Studying media manipulation and disinformation. In D. A. Rohlinger & S. Sobieraj (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of digital media sociology. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197510636.013.44
Livingstone, S. (2011). Media literacy for all? On the intellectual and political challenges of implementing media literacy policy. In S. Livingstone (Ed.), Media literacy: Ambitions, policies and measures (pp. 31–35). European Commission in Science and Technology. http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/56879
Lloyd, D. R., Medina, D. J., Hawk, L. W., Fosco, W. D., & Richards, J. B. (2014). Habituation of reinforcer effectiveness. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 7, Article 107. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2013.00107
Loomba, S., de Figueiredo, A., Piatek, S. J., de Graaf, K., & Larson, H. J. (2021). Measuring the impact of COVID-19 vaccine misinformation on vaccination intent in the UK and USA. Nature Human Behaviour, 5, 337–348. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01056-1
Lopez, L. K. (2021). Micro media industries: Hmong American media innovation in the diaspora. Rutgers University Press.
Lord, C. G., Ross, L., & Lepper, M. R. (1979). Biased assimilation and attitude polarization: The effects of prior theories on subsequently considered evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(11), 2098–2109. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.37.11.2098
Lorenz-Spreen, P., Lewandowsky, S., Sunstein, C. R., & Hertwig, R. (2020). How behavioural sciences can promote truth, autonomy and democratic discourse online. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(11), 1102–1109.
Lorenz-Spreen, P., Mønsted, B. M., Hövel, P., & Lehmann, S. (2019). Accelerating dynamics of collective attention. Nature Communications, 10, 1759. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09311-w
Love, B., Himelboim, I., Holton, A., & Stewart, K. (2013). Twitter as a source of vaccination information: Content drivers and what they are saying. American Journal of Infection Control, 41(6), 568–570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2012.10.016
Lu, C., Hu, B., Li, Q., Bi, C., & Ju, X. D. (2023). Psychological inoculation for credibility assessment, sharing intention, and discernment of misinformation: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 25, e49255. https://doi.org/10.2196/
Luhmann, N. (1979). Trust and power. John Wiley and Sons.
Lundahl, B., Moleni, T., Burke, B. L., Butters, R., Tollefson, D., Butler, C., & Rollnick, S. (2013). Motivational interviewing in medical care settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Patient Education and Counseling, 93(2), 157–168. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2013.07.012
Luo, B., Lau, R. Y. K., Li, C., & Si, Y.-W. (2022). A critical review of state-of-the-art chatbot designs and applications. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, 12(1), e1434. https://doi.org/10.1002/widm.1434
Lupia, A. (2013). Communicating science in politicized environments. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(Suppl 3), 14048–14054. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1212726110
___. (2021). Practical and ethical reasons for pursuing a more open science. Political Science & Politics, 54(2), 301–304. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096520000979
Lupia, A., Allison, D. B., Jamieson, K. H., Heimberg, J., Skipper, M., & Wolf, S. M. (2024). Trends in US public confidence in science and opportunities for progress. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 121(11), e2319488121. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2319488121
Luscombe, A., Dick, K., & Walby, K. (2022). Algorithmic thinking in the public interest: Navigating technical, legal, and ethical hurdles to web scraping in the social sciences. Quality & Quantity, 56(3), 1023–1044. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-021-01164-0
Lynas, M., Adams, J., & Conrow, J. (2022). Misinformation in the media: Global coverage of GMOs 2019-2021. GM Crops & Food, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645698.2022.2140568
Lyon, T. P., & Montgomery, A. W. (2015). The means and end of greenwash. Organization & Environment, 28(2), 223–249. https://doi.org/10.1177/1086026615575332
Lyotard, J. F. (1984). The postmodern condition: A report on knowledge. University of Minnesota Press.
Maani, N., van Schalkwyk, M. C., Petticrew, M., & Buse, K. (2022). The pollution of health discourse and the need for effective counter-framing. BMJ, 377, o1128. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.o1128
MacGregor, K. (2000, September 3). Conspiracy theories fuel row over AIDS crisis in South Africa. Irish Independent. https://www.independent.ie/world-news/conspiracy-theories-fuel-row-over-aids-crisis-in-south-africa-26108323.html
Mach, K. J., Salas Reyes, R., Pentz, B., Taylor, J., Costa, C. A., Cruz, S. G., Thomas, K. E., Arnott, J. C., Donald, R., Jagannathan, K., Kirchhoff, C. J., Rosella, L. C., & Klenk, N. (2021). News media coverage of COVID-19 public health and policy information. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 8, 220. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-021-00900-z
Madiega, T. (2024, May 20). Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on a single market for digital services (Digital Services Act) and amending Directive 2000/31/EC. Legislative Train Schedule, European Parliament. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/legislative-train/theme-a-europe-fit-for-the-digital-age/file-digital-services-act
Madrid-Morales, D., Wasserman, H., Gondwe, G., Ndlovu, K., Sikanku, E., Tully, M., Umejei, E., & Uzuegbunam, C. (2021). Motivations for sharing misinformation: A comparative study in six Sub-Saharan African countries. International Journal of Communication, 15, 1200–1219. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/14801
Madsen, K. M., Hviid, A., Vestergaard, M., Schendel, D., Wohlfahrt, J., Thorsen, P., Olsen, J., & Melbye, M. (2002). A population-based study of measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination and autism. New England Journal of Medicine, 347(19), 1477–1482. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa021134
Maertens, R., Anseel, F., & van der Linden, S. (2020). Combatting climate change misinformation: Evidence for longevity of inoculation and consensus messaging effects. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 70, Article 101455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101455
Maertens, R., Roozenbeek, J., Basol, M., & van der Linden, S. (2021). Long-term effectiveness of inoculation against misinformation: Three longitudinal experiments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 27(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000315
Májovský, M., Černý, M., Kasal, M., Komarc, M., & Netuka, D. (2023). Artificial intelligence can generate fraudulent but authentic-looking scientific medical articles: Pandora’s box has been opened. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 25, e46924. https://doi.org/10.2196/46924
Malhotra, P. (2023) Misinformation in WhatsApp family groups: Generational perceptions and correction considerations in a meso-news space, Digital Journalism, 12(5), 594–612. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2023.2213731
Malhotra, P., & Pearce, K. (2022). Facing falsehoods: Strategies for polite misinformation correction. International Journal of Communication, 16(22), 2303–2324. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/18361
Malhotra P., Zhong, R., Kuan V., Panatula G., Weng M., Bras A., Sehat M. C., Roesner F., & Zhang, X. A. (2023). User experiences and needs when responding to misinformation on social media. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 4(6). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-129
Manheim, J. (2011). Strategy in information and influence campaigns. Routledge.
Marcon, A. R., Murdoch, B., & Caulfield, T. (2017). Fake news portrayals of stem cells and stem cell research. Regenerative Medicine, 12(7), 765–775. https://doi.org/10.2217/rme-2017-0060
Maréchal, N., & Biddle, E. R. (2020). It’s not just the content, it’s the business model: Democracy’s online speech challenge. New America Foundation. https://www.newamerica.org/oti/reports/its-not-just-content-its-business-model/
Maréchal, N., MacKinnon, R., Dheere, J. (2020). Getting to the source of infodemics: It’s the business model. New America Foundation. https://www.newamerica.org/oti/reports/getting-to-the-source-of-infodemics-its-the-business-model/
Markel, H., & Stern, A. M. (2002). The foreignness of germs: The persistent association of immigrants and disease in American society. The Milbank Quarterly, 80(4), 757–788. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.00030
Martel, C., Allen, J., Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2024). Crowds can effectively identify misinformation at scale. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 19(2), 477–488. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916231190388
Martinez-Bravo, M., & Stegmann, A. (2022). In vaccines we trust? The effects of the CIA’s vaccine ruse on immunization in Pakistan. Journal of the European Economic Association, 20(1), 150–186. https://doi.org/10.1093/jeea/jvab018
Marwick, A. E. (2018). Why do people share fake news? A sociotechnical model of media effects. Georgetown Law Technology Review, 2, 474–512. https://georgetownlawtechreview.org/why-do-people-share-fake-news-a-sociotechnical-model-of-media-effects/GLTR-07-2018/
Marwick, A. E., & boyd, d. (2011). I tweet honestly, I tweet passionately: Twitter users, context collapse, and the imagined audience. New Media & Society, 13(1), 114–133. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444810365313
Marwick, A., & Lewis, R. (2017, May). Media manipulation and disinformation online. Data & Society. https://datasociety.net/library/media-manipulation-and-disinfo-online/
Mascaro, O., & Sperber, D. (2009). The moral, epistemic, and mindreading components of children’s vigilance towards deception. Cognition, 112(3), 367–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2009.05.012
Masip, P., Suau, J., Ruiz-Caballero, C., Capilla, P., & Zilles, K. (2021). News engagement on closed platforms. Human factors and technological affordances influencing exposure to news on WhatsApp. Digital Journalism, 9(8), 1062–1084. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2021.1927778
Matsaganis, M. D., Katz, V. S., & Ball-Rokeach, S. J. (2011). Understanding ethnic media: Producers, consumers, and societies. SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mazzeo, V., Rapisarda, A., & Giuffrida, G. (2021). Detection of fake news on COVID-19 on web search engines. Frontiers in Physics, 9, 685730. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphy.2021.685730
McAllister, L., Daly, M., Chandler, P., McNatt, M., Benham, A., & Boykoff, M. (2021). Balance as bias, resolute on the retreat? Updates & analyses of newspaper coverage in the United States, United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia and Canada over the past 15 years. Environmental Research Letters, 16(9), 094008. https://doi.org/10.1088/17489326/ac14eb
McCall, L. (2005). The complexity of intersectionality. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 30(3), 1771–1800. https://doi.org/10.1086/426800
McChesney, R. W. (2015). Rich media, poor democracy: Communication politics in dubious times. The New Press.
McClaran, N., & Rhodes, N. (2021). Portrayals of vaccination in entertainment television: A content analysis. Health Communication, 36(10), 1242–1251. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2020.1749356
McCright, A. M., Dentzman, K., Charters, M., & Dietz, T. (2013). The influence of political ideology on trust in science. Environmental Research Letters, 8(4), 044029. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/8/4/044029
McCright, A. M., & Dunlap, R. E. (2000). Challenging global warming as a social problem: An analysis of the conservative movement’s counter-claims. Social Problems, 47(4), 499–522. https://doi.org/10.2307/3097132
___. (2003). Defeating Kyoto: The conservative movement’s impact on US climate change policy. Social Problems, 50(3), 348–373. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2003.50.3.348
McCulloch, J., & Tweedale, G. (2008). Defending the indefensible: The global asbestos industry and its fight for survival. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199534852.001.0001
McFadden, B. R., & Lusk, J. L. (2018). Effects of the national bioengineered food disclosure standard: Willingness to pay for labels that communicate the presence or absence of genetic modification. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 40(2), 259–275. https://doi.org/10.1093/aepp/ppx040
McGrew, S. (2020). Learning to evaluate: An intervention in civic online reasoning. Computers & Education, 145, Article 103711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103711
___. (2024). Teaching lateral reading: Interventions to help people read like fact checkers. Current Opinion in Psychology, 55, 101737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101737
McGrew, S., Breakstone, J., Ortega, T., Smith, M., & Wineburg, S. (2018). Can students evaluate online sources? Learning from assessments of civic online reasoning. Theory & Research in Social Education, 48(2), 165–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2017.1416320
McKnight, D. (2010). A change in the climate? The journalism of opinion at News Corporation. Journalism, 11(6), 693–706. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884910379704
Meier, B. (2018). Pain killer: An empire of deceit and the origin of America’s opioid epidemic. Random House.
Mejova, Y., & Kalimeri, K. (2020, June). COVID-19 on Facebook ads: Competing agendas around a public health crisis. In Proceedings of the 3rd ACM SIGCAS Conference on Computing and Sustainable Societies (pp. 22–31). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3378393.3402241
Mellor, F. (2009). The politics of accuracy in judging global warming films. Environmental Communication, 3(2), 134–150. https://doi.org/10.1080/17524030902916574
Memmi, D. (2008). The nature of virtual communities. In S. Gill (Ed.), Cognition, communication and interaction: Transdisciplinary perspectives on interactive technology (pp. 70–82). Springer London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84628-927-9_5
Memon, S., & West, J. (2024, February 18). Search engines post-ChatGPT: How generative artificial intelligence could make search less reliable. University of Washington Center for an Informed Public. https://www.cip.uw.edu/2024/02/18/search-engines-chatgpt-generative-artificial-intelligence-less-reliable/
Mendoza, R. U., Dayrit, M. M., Alfonso, C. R., & Ong, M. M. A. (2021). Public trust and the COVID-19 vaccination campaign: Lessons from the Philippines as it emerges from the Dengvaxia controversy. The International Journal of Health Planning and Management, 36(6), 2048–2055. https://doi.org/10.1002/hpm.3297
Merkley, E. (2020). Are experts (news) worthy? Balance, conflict, and mass media coverage of expert consensus. Political Communication, 37(4), 530–549. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2020.1713269
Metz, R. (2021, August 6). How a deepfake Tom Cruise on TikTok turned into a very real AI company. CNN Business. https://www.cnn.com/2021/08/06/tech/tom-cruise-deepfake-tiktok-company/index.html.
Metzger, M. J., Flanagin, A. J., Mena, P., Jiang, S., & Wilson, C. (2021). From dark to light: The many shades of sharing misinformation online. Media and Communication, 9(1), 134–143. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v9i1.3409
Metzl, J. M., & Hansen, H. (2014). Structural competency: Theorizing a new medical engagement with stigma and inequality. Social Science & Medicine, 103, 126–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.06.032
Michaels, D. (2006). Manufactured uncertainty: Protecting public health in the age of contested science and product defense. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1076, 149–162.
___. (2008). Doubt is their product: How industry’s assault on science threatens your health. Oxford University Press.
___. (2020). The triumph of doubt: Dark money and the science of deception. Oxford University Press.
Michaels, D., & Monforton, C. (2005). Manufacturing uncertainty: Contested science and the protection of the public’s health and environment. American Journal of Public Health, 95(S1), S39–S48. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2004.043059
Millar, N., Batalo, B., & Budgell, B. (2022). Trends in the use of promotional language (hype) in abstracts of successful National Institutes of Health grant applications, 1985-2020. JAMA Network Open, 5(8), e2228676–e2228676. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.28676
Millar, N., Budgell, B., & Salager-Meyer, F. (2020). Hype in reports of clinical research: The authors’ perspectives. English for Specific Purposes, 60, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2020.07.001
Millar, N., Salager-Meyer, F., & Budgell, B. (2019). “It is important to reinforce the importance of…”: ‘Hype’ in reports of randomized controlled trials. English for Specific Purposes, 54, 139–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2019.02.004
Miller, J. M. (2020). Psychological, political, and situational factors combine to boost COVID-19 conspiracy theory beliefs. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 53(2), 327–334. https://doi.org/10.1017/S000842392000058X
Miller, S., & Fahy, D. (2009). Can science communication workshops train scientists for reflexive public engagement?: The ESConet experience. Science Communication, 31(1), 116–126. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547009339048
Miller, W. R., & Rollnick, S. (2023). Motivational interviewing: Helping people change and grow (4th ed.). Guilford Press.
Minnesota Department of Health. (2017). Measles, 2017. https://www.health.state.mn.us/diseases/reportable/dcn/sum17/measles.html
Minow, M. (2021). Saving the news: Why the constitution calls for government action to preserve freedom of speech. Oxford University Press.
Mitts, T., Pisharody, N., & Shapiro, J. (2022, June). Removal of anti-vaccine content impacts social media discourse. In Proceedings of the 14th ACM Web Science Conference 2022 (pp. 319–326). https://doi.org/10.1145/3501247.3531548
Mnookin, S. (2012). The panic virus: The true story behind the vaccine-autism controversy. Simon and Schuster.
Modirrousta-Galian, A., & Higham, P. A. (2023). Gamified inoculation interventions do not improve discrimination between true and fake news: Reanalyzing existing research with receiver operating characteristic analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 152(9), 2411–2437. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001395
Molteni, M. (2017, May 7). Anti-vaxxers brought their war to Minnesota—Then came measles. Wired. https://www.wired.com/2017/05/anti-vaxxers-brought-war-minnesota-came-measles/
Moore, R. C., & Hancock, J. T. (2022). A digital media literacy intervention for older adults improves resilience to fake news. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 6008. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-08437-0.
Moran, M. B., Lucas, M., Everhart, K., Morgan, A., & Prickett, E. (2016). What makes anti-vaccine websites persuasive? A content analysis of techniques used by anti-vaccine websites to engender anti-vaccine sentiment. Journal of Communication in Healthcare, 9(3), 151–163. https://doi.org/10.1080/17538068.2016.1235531
Moran, R. E., & Prochaska, S. (2023). Misinformation or activism?: Analyzing networked moral panic through an exploration of #SaveTheChildren. Information, Communication & Society, 26(16), 3197–3217. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2022.2146986
Moran, R. E., Swan, A. L., & Agajanian, T. (2024). Vaccine misinformation for profit: Conspiratorial wellness influencers and the monetization of alternative health. International Journal of Communication, 18, 1202–1224. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/21128/4494
Morosoli, S., Van Aelst, P., Humprecht, E., Staender, A., & Esser, F. (2022a). Identifying the drivers behind the dissemination of online misinformation: A study on political attitudes and individual characteristics in the context of engaging with misinformation on social media. American Behavioral Scientist. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027642221118300
Morosoli, S., Van Aelst, P., & Van Erkel, P. (2022b). To convince, to provoke or to entertain? A study on individual motivations behind engaging with conspiracy theories online. Convergence, 28(4), 1030–1059. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354856522110579
Morozov, E. (2013). To save everything, click here: The folly of technological solutionism. PublicAffairs.
Morrison, S. (2021, January 20). Facebook and Twitter made special world leader rules for Trump. What happens now? Vox. https://www.vox.com/recode/22233450/trump-twitter-facebook-ban-world-leader-rules-exception
Morrow, G., Swire-Thompson, B., Polny, J. M., Kopec, M., & Wihbey, J. P. (2022). The emerging science of content labeling: Contextualizing social media content moderation. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 73(10), 1365–1386. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3742120
Motta, M. (2019). Explaining science funding attitudes in the United States: The case for science interest. Public Understanding of Science, 28(2), 161–176. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662518795397
Motta, M., Callaghan, T., & Sylvester, S. (2018). Knowing less but presuming more: Dunning-Kruger effects and the endorsement of anti-vaccine policy attitudes. Social Science & Medicine, 211, 274–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.06.032
Motta, M., Hwang, J., & Stecula, D. (2023). What goes down must come up? Pandemic-related misinformation search behavior during an unplanned Facebook outage. Health Communication, 39(10), 2041–2052. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2023.2254583
Motta, M., Stecula, D., & Farhart, C. (2020). How right-leaning media coverage of COVID-19 facilitated the spread of misinformation in the early stages of the pandemic in the US. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 53(2), 335–342. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423920000396
Muddiman, A., Budak, C., Murray, C., Kim, Y., & Stroud, N. J. (2022). Indexing theory during an emerging health crisis: How US TV news indexed elite perspectives and amplified COVID-19 misinformation. Annals of the International Communication Association, 46(3), 174–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2022.2120521
Muise, D., Hosseinmardi, H., Howland, B., Mobius, M., Rothschild, D., & Watts, D. J. (2022). Quantifying partisan news diets in Web and TV audiences. Science Advances, 8(28), eabn0083. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abn0083
Mummolo, J. (2016). News from the other side: How topic relevance limits the prevalence of partisan selective exposure. The Journal of Politics, 78(3), 763–773. https://doi.org/10.1086/685584
Munger, K. (2019). The limited value of non-replicable field experiments in contexts with low temporal validity. Social Media + Society, 5(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305119859294
Murdoch, B., Zarzeczny, A., & Caulfield, T. (2018). Exploiting science? A systematic analysis of complementary and alternative medicine clinic websites’ marketing of stem cell therapies. BMJ Open, 8, e019414. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-019414
Murphy, G., de Saint Laurent, C., Reynolds, M., Aftab, O., Hegarty, K. Sun, Y. & Greene, C. M. (2023). What do we study when we study misinformation? A scoping review of experimental research (2016-2022). Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 4(6). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-130
Murphy, G., & Greene, C. M. (2023). Conducting ethical misinformation research: Deception, dialogue, and debriefing. Current Opinion in Psychology, 54, Article 101713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101713
Murtfeldt, R., Alterman, N., Kahveci, I., & West, J. D. (2024). RIP Twitter API: A eulogy to its vast research contributions. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2404.07340
Muvuka, B., Combs, R. M., Ayangeakaa, S. D., Ali, N. M., Wendel, M. L., & Jackson, T. (2020). Health literacy in African-American communities: Barriers and strategies. Health Literacy Research and Practice, 4(3), e138–e143. https://doi.org/10.3928/24748307-20200617-01
Nagler, R. H., Fowler, E. F., & Gollust, S. E. (2015). Covering controversy: What are the implications for women’s health? Women’s Health Issues, 25(4), 318–321. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.whi.2015.04.011
Nagler, R. H., Gollust, S. E., Yzer, M. C., Vogel, R. I., & Rothman, A. J. (2023). Sustaining positive perceptions of science in the face of conflicting health information: An experimental test of messages about the process of scientific discovery. Social Science & Medicine, 334, 116194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116194
Nagler, R. H., Ramanadhan, S., Minsky, S., & Viswanath, K. (2013). Recruitment and retention for community-based eHealth interventions with populations of low socioeconomic position: Strategies and challenges. Journal of Communication, 63(1), 201–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12008
Nam, H. H., & Sawyer, K. (2024). Scientific supremacy: How do genetic narratives relate to racism? Politics and the Life Sciences, 43(1), 99–131. https://doi.org/10.1017/pls.2023.15
Nan, X., Wang, Y., & Thier, K. (2022). Why do people believe health misinformation and who is at risk? A systematic review of individual differences in susceptibility to health misinformation. Social Science & Medicine, 314, 115398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115398
Napoli P. M. (2019). Social media and the public interest: Media regulation in the disinformation age. Columbia University Press.
Nasir, N. I. S., & Vakil, S. (2017). STEM-focused academies in urban schools: Tensions and possibilities. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 26(3), 376–406. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508406.2017.1314215
Nasol, K., & Francisco-Menchavez, V. (2021). Filipino home care workers: Invisible frontline workers in the COVID-19 crisis in the United States. American Behavioral Scientist, 65(10), 1365–1383. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027642211000410
Nasser, R. (2017, April 27). Techniques for the processing of the Arabic language on modern computers: Recorded at Interrupt 4 at Brown University, Providence, RI [Video]. Vimeo. https://vimeo.com/225567483
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (National Academies). (2016a). Genetically engineered crops: Experiences and prospects. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/23395
___. (2016b). Science literacy: Concepts, contexts, and consequences. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/23595
___. (2017). Communicating science effectively: A research agenda. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/23674
___. (2019a). Reproducibility and replicability in science. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/25303
___. (2019b). Taking action against clinician burnout: A systems approach to professional well-being. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/25521
___. (2021). Section 230 protections: Can legal revisions or novel technologies limit online misinformation and abuse?: Proceedings of a workshop–in brief. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/26280
National Association of Science Writers (n.d.). NASW survey finds that many journalists continue to face hurdles when reporting on federal agencies and seeking access to government scientists and experts. https://www.nasw.org/article/nasw-survey-finds-many-journalists-continue-face-hurdles-when-reporting-federal-agencies
National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1979). The Belmont report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html
National Council of State Boards of Nursing. (2021). Policy statement: Dissemination of non-scientific and misleading COVID-19 information by nurses. https://www.ncsbn.org/public-files/PolicyBriefDisseminationofCOVID19Info.pdf
National Institute of Standards and Technology. (2024). NIST trustworthy and responsible AI NIST AI 600-1: Artificial intelligence risk management framework: Generative artificial intelligence profile. U.S. Department of Commerce. https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/ai/NIST.AI.600-1.pdf
National Institutes of Health Community Engagement Alliance. (2023, June 13). Barbers in Jacksonville serve as information hubs during pandemic. https://nihceal.org/news/
National Research Council (NRC). (1996). Understanding risk: Informing decisions in a democratic society. National Academy Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/5138
___. (2002). Scientific research in education. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/10236
___. (2008). Public participation in environmental assessment and decision making. National Academy Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/12434
___. (2012a). A framework for K-12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/13165
___. (2012b). Using science as evidence in public policy. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/13460
___. (2013). Next generation science standards: For states, by states. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/18290
National Science Board, National Science Foundation. (2022). Science and technology: Public perceptions, awareness, and information sources (Publication No. NSB-2022-7). Science and Engineering Indicators 2022. https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsb20227.
___. (2024, February). Science and technology: Public perceptions, awareness, and information sources (Publication No. NSB-2024-4). Science and Engineering Indicators 2024. https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsb20244
National Science & Technology Council. (2022, December). Roadmap for researchers on priorities related to information integrity research and development. United States Office of Science and Technology Policy. https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Roadmap-Information-Integrity-RD-2022.pdf
Neff, T., & Pickard, V. (2021). Funding democracy: Public media and democratic health in 33 countries. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 29(3), 601–627. https://doi.org/10.1177/19401612211060255
Nelson, J. L., & Taneja, H. (2018). The small, disloyal fake news audience: The role of audience availability in fake news consumption. New Media & Society, 20(10), 3720–3737. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818758715
Newell, E., Jurgens, D., Saleem, H., Vala, H., Sassine, J., Armstrong, C., & Ruths, D. (2021). User migration in online social networks: A case study on Reddit during a period of community unrest. Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media, 10(1), 279–288. https://doi.org/10.1609/icwsm.v10i1.14750
Newman, E., & Reynolds, K. (2021, August 19). Is it actually false, or do you just disagree? Why Twitter’s user-driven experiment to tackle misinformation is complicated. The Conversation. http://theconversation.com/is-it-actually-false-or-do-you-just-disagree-why-twitters-user-driven-experiment-to-tackle-misinformation-is-complicated-166335
Ng, L. H. X., & Loke, J. Y. (2021). Analyzing public opinion and misinformation in a COVID-19 telegram group chat. IEEE Internet Computing, 25(2), 84–91. https://doi.org/10.1109/MIC.2020.3040516
Ngai, M. M. (2004). Impossible subjects: Illegal aliens and the making of modern America. Princeton University Press
___. (2014). Undocumented migration to the United States: A history. In L. A. Lorentzen (Ed.), Hidden lives and human rights in the United States. Praeger.
Nguyen, C. T. (2020). Echo chambers and epistemic bubbles. Episteme, 17(2), 141–161. https://doi.org/10.1017/epi.2018.32
Nguyen, H., & Nguyen, A. (2020). COVID-19 misinformation and the social (media) amplification of risk: A Vietnamese perspective. Media and Communication, 8(2), 444–447. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v8i2.3227
Nguyễn, S., & Kuo, R. (2023, unpublished). [Misinformation in non-English language information networks]. Paper commission by the Committee on Understanding and Addressing Misinformation About Science, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Available on request in the National Academies’ Public Access Files.
Nguyễn, S., Kuo, R., Reddi, M., Li, L., & Moran, R. E. (2022). Studying mis-and disinformation in Asian diasporic communities: The need for critical transnational research beyond Anglocentrism (Commentary). Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 3(2). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-95
Nicholas, G., & Bhatia, A. (2023, May 23). Lost in translation: Large language models in non-English content analysis. Center for Democracy and Technology. https://cdt.org/insights/lost-in-translation-large-language-models-in-non-english-content-analysis/
Nichols, T. (2017). The death of expertise: The campaign against established knowledge and why it matters (1st ed.). Oxford University Press.
Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175–220. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175
Nogara, G., Vishnuprasad, P. S., Cardoso, F., Ayoub, O., Giordano, S., & Luceri, L. (2022). The disinformation dozen: An exploratory analysis of COVID-19 disinformation proliferation on Twitter. In Proceedings of the 14th ACM Web Science Conference 2022, 348–358. https://doi.org/10.1145/3501247.3531573
Nordon, C., Karcher, H., Groenwold, R. H., Ankarfeldt, M. Z., Pichler, F., Chevrou-Severac, H., Rossignol, M., Abbe, A., & Abenhaim, L. (2016). The “efficacy-effectiveness gap”: Historical background and current conceptualization. Value in Health, 19(1), 75–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jval.2015.09.2938
Nuriddin, A., Mooney, G., & White, A. I. R. (2020). Reckoning with histories of medical racism and violence in the USA. The Lancet, 396(10256), 949–951. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32032-8
Nutbeam, D. (2000). Health literacy as a public health goal: A challenge for contemporary health education and communication strategies into the 21st century. Health Promotion International, 15(3), 259–267. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/15.3.259
Nutbeam, D., & Lloyd, J. E. (2021). Understanding and responding to health literacy as a social determinant of health. Annual Review of Public Health, 42, 159–173. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-090419-102529
Nyhan, B. (2020). Facts and myths about misperceptions. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 34(3), 220–236. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.34.3.220
Nyhan, B., Porter, E., Reifler, J., & Wood, T. J. (2019). Taking fact-checks literally but not seriously? The effects of journalistic fact-checking on factual beliefs and candidate favor-ability. Political Behavior, 1–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2995128
Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2010). When corrections fail: The persistence of political misperceptions. Political Behavior, 32(2), 303–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-010-9112-2
___. (2015). Does correcting myths about the flu vaccine work? An experimental evaluation of the effects of corrective information. Vaccine, 33(3), 459–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.11.017
Nyhan, B., Settle, J., Thorson, E., Wojcieszak, M., Barberá, P., Chen, A. Y., Allcott, H., Brown, T., Crespo-Tenorio, A., Dimmery, D., Freelon, D., Gentzkow, M., González-Bailón, S., Guess, A. M., Kennedy, E., Kim, Y. M., Lazer, D., Malhotra, N., Moehler, D., Pan, J., Thomas, D. R.. Tromble, R., Rivera, C. V., Wilkins, A., Ziong, B., de Jong, C. K., Franco, A., Mason, W., Stroud, N. J., and Tucker, J. A. (2023). Like-minded sources on Facebook are prevalent but not polarizing. Nature, 620(7972), 137–144. https://doi.org/10.1038/
O’Brien, T. C., Palmer, R., & Albarracin, D. (2021). Misplaced trust: When trust in science fosters belief in pseudoscience and the benefits of critical evaluation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 96, 104184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104184
O’Connor, C., & Weatherall, J. O. (2019, September 1). How misinformation spreads—and why we trust it. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/howmisinformation-spreads-and-why-we-trust-it/
O’Donoghue, A. C., Boudewyns, V., Aikin, K. J., Geisen, E., Betts, K. R., & Southwell, B. G. (2015). Awareness of FDA’s Bad Ad program and education regarding pharmaceutical advertising: A national survey of prescribers in ambulatory care settings. Journal of Health Communication, 20(11), 1330–1336. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2015.1018649
O’Keeffe, M., Nickel, B., Dakin, T., Maher, C. G., Albarqouni, L., McCaffery, K., Barratt, A., & Moynihan, R. (2021). Journalists’ views on media coverage of medical tests and overdiagnosis: A qualitative study. BMJ Open, 11, e043991. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-043991
Occeñola, P. (2019, September 10). Exclusive: PH was Cambridge Analytica’s ‘petri dish’—Whistle-blower Christian Wylie. Rappler. https://rappler.com/technology/social-media/cambridge-analytica-philippines-online-propaganda-christopher-wylie
Office of the Surgeon General. (2022). Addressing health worker burnout: The U.S. Surgeon General’s advisory on building a thriving health workforce. https://www.hhs.gov/surgeongeneral/priorities/health-worker-burnout/index.html
Ognyanova, K., Lazer, D., Robertson, R. E., & Wilson, C. (2020, June 2). Misinformation in action: Fake news exposure is linked to lower trust in media, higher trust in government when your side is in power. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 1(4). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-024
Olshansky, A., Peaslee, R. M., & Landrum, A. R. (2020). Flat-smacked! Converting to flat Eartherism. Journal of Media & Religion, 19(2), 46–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/15348423.2020.1774257
Ong, J. C., & Cabañes, J. V. (2019). When disinformation studies meets production studies: Social identities and moral justifications in the political trolling industry. International Journal of Communication, 13, 20. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/11417
Oransky, I., & Marcus, A. (2020, February 3). Quick retraction of a faulty coronavirus paper was a good moment for science. Stat News. https://www.statnews.com/2020/02/03/retraction-faulty-coronavirus-paper-good-moment-for-science/
Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. (2010a). Defeating the merchants of doubt. Nature, 465(7299), 686–687. https://doi.org/10.1038/465686a
___. (2010b). Merchants of doubt: How a handful of scientists obscured the truth on issues from tobacco smoke to global warming. Bloomsbury Publishing.
Ornstein, C., & Weber, T. (2011, December 23). The champion of painkillers. ProPublica. https://www.propublica.org/article/the-champion-of-painkillers
Osborne, J., & Pimentel, D. (2022). Science, misinformation, and the role of education. Science, 378(6617), 246–248. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abq8093
Osmundsen, M., Bor, A., Vahlstrup, P. B., Bechmann, A., & Petersen, M. B. (2021). Partisan polarization is the primary psychological motivation behind political fake news sharing on Twitter. American Political Science Review, 115(3), 999–1015. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055421000290
Otero, J. (2021, August 10). The art of meeting people where they are: A community partnership approach for COVID equity. Center for Primary Care, Harvard Medical School. https://info.primarycare.hms.harvard.edu/review/art-of-meeting-people
Ousey, G. C., & Kubrin, C. E. (2018). Immigration and crime: Assessing a contentious issue. Annual Review of Criminology, 1, 63–84. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurevs-criminol-032317-092026
Owen, L. H. (2021, February 12). The dark side of translation: The Epoch Times reportedly spreads disinformation through new brands. Nieman Lab. https://www.niemanlab.org/2021/02/
Ozbay, F. A., & Alatas, B. (2020). Fake news detection within online social media using supervised artificial intelligence algorithms. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 540, 123174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physa.2019.123174
Paik, A. N. (2013). Carceral quarantine at Guantánamo: Legacies of US imprisonment of Haitian refugees, 1991–1994. Radical History Review, 2013(115), 142–168. https://doi.org/10.1215/01636545-1724751
Palacio, A., Garay, D., Langer, B., Taylor, J., Wood, B. A., & Tamariz, L. (2016). Motivational Interviewing improves medication adherence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 31(8), 929–940. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-016-3685-3
Paletz, S. B. F., Johns, M. A., Murauskaite, E. E., Golonka, E. M., Pandža, N. B., Rytting, C. A., Butain, A., & Ellis, D. (2023). Emotional content and sharing on Facebook: A theory cage match. Science Advances, 9(39), eade9231. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.ade9231
Pamuk, Z. (2021). Politics and expertise: How to use science in a democratic society. Princeton University Press.
Papadogiannakis, E., Papadopoulos, P., Markatos, E. P., & Kourtellis, N. (2023, April). Who funds misinformation? A systematic analysis of the ad-related profit routines of fake news sites. In Proceedings of the ACM Web Conference 2023 (pp. 2765–2776). https://doi.org/10.1145/3543507.3583443
Paquin, R. S., Boudewyns, V., Betts, K. R., Johnson, M., O’Donoghue, A. C., & Southwell, B. G. (2022). An empirical procedure to evaluate misinformation rejection and deception in mediated communication contexts. Communication Theory, 32(1), 25–47. https://doi.org/10.1093/ct/qtab011
Parrella, J. A., Koswatta, T. J., Leggette, H. R., Ramasubramanian, S., & Rutherford, T. (2022). Teaching scientists to communicate: Developing science communication training based on scientists’ knowledge and self-reflectiveness. International Journal of Science Education, Part B, 12(3), 235–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/21548455.2022.2068809
Pasquetto, I. V., Jahani, E., Atreja, S., & Baum, M. (2022). Social debunking of misinformation on WhatsApp: The case for strong and in-group ties. In Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 6(CSCW1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1145/3512964
Pearson, G. (2021). Sources on social media: Information context collapse and volume of content as predictors of source blindness. New Media & Society, 23(5), 1181–1199. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820910505
Pechar, E., Bernauer, T., & Mayer, F. (2018). Beyond political ideology: The impact of attitudes towards government and corporations on trust in science. Science Communication, 40(3), 291–313. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547018763970
Pedersen, M. A., Albris, K., & Seaver, N. (2021). The political economy of attention. Annual Review of Anthropology, 50(1), 309–325. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-anthro-101819-110356
Peña D. G. (1997). The terror of the machine. University of Texas Press.
Peña, J. M., Schwartz, M. R., Hernandez-Vallant, A., & Sanchez, G. R. (2023). Social and structural determinants of COVID-19 vaccine uptake among racial and ethnic groups. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 46(1-2), 129–139. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-023-00393-y
Pennycook, G., Bear, A., Collins, E. T., & Rand, D. G. (2020). The implied truth effect: Attaching warnings to a subset of fake news headlines increases perceived accuracy of headlines without warnings. Management Science, 66(11), 4944–4957. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2019.3478
Pennycook, G., Cannon, T. D., & Rand, D. G. (2018). Prior exposure increases perceived accuracy of fake news. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 147(12), 1865–1880. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000465
Pennycook, G., Epstein, Z., Mosleh, M., Arechar, A. A., Eckles, D., & Rand, D. G. (2021). Shifting attention to accuracy can reduce misinformation online. Nature, 592, 590–595. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03344-2
Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2019). Lazy, not biased: Susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. Cognition, 188, 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2018.06.011
___. (2021). The psychology of fake news. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 25(5), 388–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2021.02.007
___. (2022a). Accuracy prompts are a replicable and generalizable approach for reducing the spread of misinformation. Nature Communications, 13, Article 1. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-30073-5
___. (2022b). Nudging social media toward accuracy. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 700(1), 152–164. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027162221092342
Pequeño IV, A. (2023, June 13). Reddit stands by controversial API change as Subreddit protest continues. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/antoniopequenoiv/2023/06/13/reddit-stands-by-controversial-api-changes-as-subreddit-protest-continues/
Perach, R., Joyner, L., Husbands, D., & Buchanan, T. (2023). Why do people share political information and misinformation online? Developing a bottom-up descriptive framework. Social Media+ Society, 9(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051231192032
Pereira, A., Harris, E., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2023). Identity concerns drive belief: The impact of partisan identity on the belief and dissemination of true and false news. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 26(1), 24–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430221103000
Percy, C., & Murray S. (2010). The role of an online peer-to-peer health community in addressing psychosocial concerns and social support in polycystic ovary syndrome. International Journal of Web Based Communities, 6(4), 349–361. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJWBC.2010.035838
Perera, P., Selvanathan, S., Bandaralage, J., & Su, J.-J. (2023). The impact of digital inequality in achieving sustainable development: A systematic literature review. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion, 42(6), 805–825. https://doi.org/10.1108/EDI-08-2022-0224
Perlis, R. H., Lunz Trujillo, K., Green, J., Safarpour, A., Druckman, J. N., Santillana, M., Ognyanova, K., & Lazer, D. (2023). Misinformation, trust, and use of ivermectin and hydroxychloroquine for COVID-19. JAMA Health Forum, 4(9), e233257–e233257. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamahealthforum.2023.3257
Perlis, R. H., Ognyanova, K., Santillana, M., Lin, J., Druckman, J., Lazer, D., Green, J., Simonson, M., Baum, M. A., & Della Volpe, J. (2022). Association of major depressive symptoms with endorsement of COVID-19 vaccine misinformation among US adults. JAMA Network Open, 5(1), e2145697. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.45697
Perry, B. (2003). Hate and bias crime: A reader. Routledge.
Peters, E., Tompkins, M. K., Knoll, M. A. Z., Ardoin, S. P., Shoots-Reinhard, B., & Meara, A. S. (2019). Despite high objective numeracy, lower numeric confidence relates to worse financial and medical outcomes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(39), 19386–19391. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1903126116
Peters, H. P., Brossard, D., de Cheveigné, S., Dunwoody, S., Kallfass, M., Miller, S., & Tsuchida, S. (2008). Science-media interface: It’s time to reconsider. Science Communication, 30(2), 266–276. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547008324809
Petersen, M. B., Osmundsen, M., & Arceneaux, K. (2023). The “need for chaos” and motivations to share hostile political rumors. American Political Science Review, 117(4), 1486–1505. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055422001447
Peterson, E., & Iyengar, S. (2021). Partisan gaps in political information and information-seeking behavior: Motivated reasoning or cheerleading? American Journal of Political Science, 65(1), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12535
Peterson, J. S., Swire-Thompson, B., & Johnson, S. B. (2020). What’s the alternative? Responding strategically to cancer misinformation, Future Oncology, 25, 1883–1888. https://doi.org/10.2217/fon-2020-0440
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 123–205). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60214-2
Pew Research Center. (2019a, August 2). Findings at a glance: Medical doctors. https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2019/08/02/findings-at-a-glance-medical-doctors/
___. (2019b). Trusting the news media in the Trump era. https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/wp-content/uploads/sites/8/2019/12/PJ_2019.12.12_Trust-In-Media_FINAL.pdf
___. (2019c, November 15). Americans have positive views about religion’s role in society, but want it out of politics. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2019/11/15/most-congregants-trust-clergy-to-give-advice-about-religious-issues-fewer-trust-clergy-on-personal-matters/
___. (2022, April). Black Americans’ views of and engagement with science. https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2022/04/07/black-americans-views-of-and-engagement-with-science/
___. (2023a, November). Americans’ trust in scientists, positive views of science continue to decline. https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2023/11/14/americans-trust-in-scientists-positive-views-of-science-continue-to-decline/
___. (2023b, September 14). Local TV news fact sheet. https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/fact-sheet/local-tv-news/
___. (2024a, January). Americans’ social media use. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2024/01/31/americans-social-media-use/
___. (2024b, March). How Hispanic Americans get their news. https://www.pewresearch.org/race-and-ethnicity/2024/03/19/how-hispanic-americans-get-their-news/
___. (2024c). News platform fact sheet. https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/fact-sheet/news-platform-fact-sheet/
Pham, T.-N. (2021). You don’t say he was kidnapped! Vietnamese diasporic media’s coverage of Trinh Xuan Thanh issue. Journalism Studies, 22(4), 496–515. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2021.1882878
Phillips, C. V., Wang, C., & Guenzel, B. (2005). You might as well smoke; the misleading and harmful public message about smokeless tobacco. BMC Public Health, 5, Article 31. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-5-31
Phillips, T., & Elledge, J. (2022). Conspiracy: A history of boll*cks theories, and how not to fall for them. Wildfire.
Pickard, V. (2019). Democracy without journalism?: Confronting the misinformation society. Oxford University Press.
Pierri, F., DeVerna, M. R., Yang, K.-C., Axelrod, D., Bryden, J., & Menczer, F. (2023). One year of COVID-19 Vaccine misinformation on Twitter: Longitudinal study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 25, e42227. https://doi.org/10.2196/42227
Pierri, F., Perry, B. L., DeVerna, M. R., Yang, K.-C., Flammini, A., Menczer, F., & Bryden, J. (2022). Online misinformation is linked to early COVID-19 vaccination hesitancy and refusal. Scientific Reports, 12, Article 5966. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-10070-w
Pietrantonj, C. D., Rivetti, A., Marchione, P., Debalini, M. G., & Demicheli, V. (2021). Vaccines for measles, mumps, rubella, and varicella in children. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 11, Article CD004407. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004407.pub5
Pike, J., Melnick, A., Gastañaduy, P. A., Kay, M., Harbison, J., Leidner, A. J., Rice, S., Asato, K., Schwartz, L., & DeBolt, C. (2021). Societal costs of a measles outbreak. Pediatrics, 147(4), e2020027037. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-027037
Pillai, R. M., & Fazio, L. K. (2023). Explaining why headlines are true or false reduces intentions to share false information. Collabra: Psychology, 9(1), 87617. https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.87617
___. (2024). Repeated by many versus repeated by one: Examining the role of social consensus in the relationship between repetition and belief. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition. https://doi.org/10.1037/mac0000166
Pillai, R. M., Fazio, L. K., & Effron, D. (2023). Repeatedly encountered descriptions of wrongdoing seem more true but less unethical: Evidence in a naturalistic setting. Psychological Science, 34(8), 863–874. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976231180578
Pimentel, D. R. (2024). Learning to evaluate sources of science (mis)information on the internet: Assessing students’ scientific online reasoning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 1–37. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21974
Pinna, M., Picard, L., & Goessmann, C. (2022). Cable news and COVID-19 vaccine uptake. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 16804. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-20350-0
Pluta, A., Mazurek, J., Wojciechowski, J., Wolak, T., Soral, W., & Bilewicz, M. (2023). Exposure to hate speech deteriorates neurocognitive mechanisms of the ability to understand others’ pain. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 4127. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31146-1
Podlas, K. (2005). “The CSI effect”: Exposing the media myth. Fordham Intellectual Property Media & Entertainment Law Journal, 16(2), 429–465. https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/iplj/vol16/iss2/2
Polleri, M. (2022). Towards an anthropology of misinformation. Anthropology Today, 38(5), 17–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8322.12754
Polman, J. L. (2023, unpublished). [Science learning for navigating a complex informational landscape]. Paper commissioned by the Committee on Understanding and Addressing Misinformation about Science, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Available on request in the National Academies’ Public Access Files.
Polman, J. L., & Miller, D. (2010). Changing stories: Trajectories of identification among African American youth in a science outreach apprenticeship. American Educational Research Journal, 47(4), 879–918. https://doi.org/10.3102/000283121036751
Polman, J. L., Newman, A., Saul, E. W., & Farrar, C. (2014). Adapting practices of science journalism to foster science literacy. Science Education, 98(5), 766–791. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21114
Polny, J. M., & Wihbey, J. P. (2021, June 3). The evolution of social media content labeling: An online archive. The Ethics Institute at Northeastern University. https://cssh.northeastern.edu/ethics/the-evolution-of-social-media-content-labeling-an-online-archive/
Popiel, P., & Pickard, V. (2022). Digital redlining and the endless divide: Philadelphia’s COVID-19 digital inclusion efforts. International Journal of Communication, 16, 3329–3353. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/18305
Porter, E., & Wood, T. J. (2021). The global effectiveness of fact-checking: Evidence from simultaneous experiments in Argentina, Nigeria, South Africa, and the United Kingdom. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(37), e2104235118.
Porter, E., Velez, Y., & Wood, T. J. (2022). Factual corrections eliminate false beliefs about COVID-19 vaccines. Public Opinion Quarterly, 86(3), 762–773.
___. (2023). Correcting COVID-19 vaccine misinformation in 10 countries. Royal Society Open Science, 10(3), 221097.
Porterfield, C. (2021, September 13). Facebook reportedly allowed powerful users to break platform rules. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/carlieporterfield/2021/09/13/facebook-reportedly-allowed-powerful-users-to-break-platform-rules/
Prasad, V. K., & Cifu, A. S. (2015). Ending medical reversal: Improving outcomes, saving lives. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Prike, T., Butler, L., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2023, April 1). Source-credibility information and social norms improve truth discernment and reduce engagement with misinformation online. PsyArXiv Preprints. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/dhx6f
Prike, T., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2023). Effective correction of misinformation. Current Opinion in Psychology, 54, 101721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101712
Prior, M. (2007). Post-broadcast democracy: How media choice increases inequality in political involvement and polarizes elections. Cambridge University Press.
___. (2013). Media and political polarization. Annual Review of Political Science, 16, 101–127. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-100711-135242
Proctor, R. N., & Schiebinger, L. (2008). Agnotology: The making and unmaking of ignorance. Stanford University Press.
Prue, C. E., Williams, P. N., Joseph, H. A., Johnson, M., Wojno, A. E., Zulkiewicz, B. A., Macom, J., Alexander, J. P., Ray, S. E., & Southwell, B. G. (2019). Factors that mattered in helping travelers from countries with Ebola outbreaks participate in post-arrival monitoring during the 2014-2016 Ebola epidemic. INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0046958019894795
Pummerer, L., Böhm, R., Lilleholt, L., Winter, K., Zettler, I., & Sassenberg, K. (2022). Conspiracy theories and their societal effects during the COVID-19 pandemic. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 13(1), 49–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506211000217
Puri, N., Coomes, E. A., Haghbayan, H., & Gunaratne, K. (2020). Social media and vaccine hesitancy: New updates for the era of COVID-19 and globalized infectious diseases. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, 16(11), 2586–2593. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2020.1780846
Purnat, T. D., Vacca, P., Czerniak, C., Ball, S., Burzo, S., Zecchin, T., Wright, A., Bezbaruah, S., Tanggol, F., Dubé, È., Labbé, F., Dionne, M., Lamichhane, J., Mahajan, A., Briand, S., & Nguyen, T. (2021). Infodemic signal detection during the COVID-19 pandemic: Development of a methodology for identifying potential information voids in online conversations. JMIR Infodemiology, 1(1), e30971. https://doi.org/10.2196/30971
Putnam, R. D. (1993). The prosperous community: Social capital and public life. The American Prospect, 4(13), 35–42.
___. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. Simon & Schuster.
Pyne, J. M., Seal, K. H., Manuel, J. K., DeRonne, B., Oliver, K. A., Bertenthal, D., Esserman, D., Purcell, N., Petrakis, B. A., & Elwy, A. R. (2023). Developing and testing a COVID-19 vaccination acceptance intervention: A pragmatic trial comparing vaccine acceptance intervention vs usual care – Rationale, methods, and implementation. Contemporary Clinical Trials, 133, 107325. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cct.2023.107325
Quinn, R. (2023, December 4). Misinformation research plows ahead—but so do political detractors. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/faculty-issues/academic-freedom/2023/12/04/misinformation-research-plows-ahead-so-do
Rachul, C., & Caulfield, T. (2015). Gordie Howe’s stem cell ‘miracle’: A qualitative analysis of news coverage and readers’ comments in newspapers and sports websites. Stem Cell Reviews and Reports, 11, 667–675. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12015-015-9606-8
Rachul, C., Marcon, A. R., Collins, B., & Caulfield, T. (2020). COVID-19 and ‘immune boosting’ on the internet: A content analysis of Google search results. BMJ Open, 10, e040989. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-040989
Radinsky, J., & Tabak, I. (2022). Data practices during COVID: Everyday sensemaking in a high-stakes information ecology. British Journal of Educational Technology, 53(5), 1221–1243. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13252
Radrizzani, S., Fonseca, C., Woollard, A., Pettitt, J., & Hurst, L. D. (2023). Both trust in, and polarization of trust in, relevant sciences have increased through the COVID-19 pandemic. PLoS One, 18(3), e0278169. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278169
Rajagopalan, K. (2021). Asian media on the front lines: How community media have served Asian Americans during the pandemic. Center for Community Media, Asian Media Initiative. https://asianmediafrontlines.journalism.cuny.edu/
The RECOVERY Collaborative Group. (2020). Effect of hydroxychloroquine in hospitalized patients with Covid-19. New England Journal of Medicine, 383(21), 2030–2040. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2022926
Reed, G., Hendlin, Y., Desikan, A., MacKinney, T., Berman, E., & Goldman, G. T. (2021). The disinformation playbook: How industry manipulates the science-policy process—and how to restore scientific integrity. Journal of Public Health Policy, 42(4), 622–634. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41271-021-00318-6
Reinhart, R. J. (2020). Fewer in U.S. continue to see vaccines as important (2019 Survey Results). Gallup. https://news.gallup.com/poll/276929/fewer-continue-vaccines-important.aspx
Ren, Z., Dimant, E., & Schweitzer, M. (2023). Beyond belief: How social engagement motives influence the spread of conspiracy theories. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 104, 104421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104421
Reno, J. E., O’Leary, S., Garrett, K., Pyrzanowski, J., Lockhart, S., Campagna, E., Barnard, J., & Dempsey, A. F. (2018). Improving provider communication about HPV vaccines for vaccine-hesitant parents through the use of motivational interviewing. Journal of Health Communication, 23(4), 313–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2018.1442530
Reno, J. E., Thomas, J., Pyrzanowski, J., Lockhart, S., O’Leary, S. T., Campagna, E. J., & Dempsey, A. F. (2019). Examining strategies for improving healthcare providers’ communication about adolescent HPV vaccination: Evaluation of secondary outcomes in a randomized controlled trial. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, 15(7–8), 1592–1598. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2018.1547607
Reo, N. J., Whyte, K., Ranco, D., Brandt, J., Blackmer, E., & Elliott, B. (2017). Invasive species, indigenous stewards, and vulnerability discourse. The American Indian Quarterly, 41(3), 201–223. https://dx.doi.org/10.5250/amerindiquar.41.3.0201.
Reyna V. F. (2021). A scientific theory of gist communication and misinformation resistance, with implications for health, education, and policy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(15), e1912441117. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1912441117
Reyna, V. F., Broniatowski, D. A., & Edelson, S. M. (2021). Viruses, vaccines, and COVID-19: explaining and improving risky decision-making. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 10(4), 491–509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2021.08.004
Ribeiro, M., Jhaver, S., Martinell, J., Reignier-Tayar, M., & West, R. (2024). Deplatforming norm-violating influencers on social media reduces overall online attention toward them. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2401.01253
Ricard, J., & Medeiros, J. (2020). Using misinformation as a political weapon: COVID-19 and Bolsonaro in Brazil. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-013
Rive, N., Jackson, B., & Rado, D. (2007, June 11). Complaint to Ofcom regarding “The great global warming swindle”. Ofcom Swindle Complaint. http://www.ofcomswindlecomplaint.net/FullComplaint.pdf
Roberts, D. A. (2007). Scientific literacy/science literacy. In S. Abell & N. Lederman (Eds.), Handbook of research on science education (pp. 729–780). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
___. (2011). Competing visions of scientific literacy: Influence of a science curriculum policy image. In C. Linder, L. Östman, D. A. Roberts, P.-O. Wickman, G. Erickson, & A. MacKinnon (Eds.), Exploring the landscape of scientific literacy (pp. 11–27). Routledge/Taylor and Francis Group.
Robertson, R. E., Green, J., Ruck, D. J., Ognyanova, K., Wilson, C., & Lazer, D. (2023). Users choose to engage with more partisan news than they are exposed to on Google Search. Nature, 618(7964), 342–348. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06078-5
Robertson, R. E., Jiang, S., Joseph, K., Friedland, L., Lazer, D., & Wilson, C. (2018). Auditing partisan audience bias within Google Search. In Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 2(CSCW), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1145/3274417
Roller, M. R. (2022). The unique attributes of qualitative research: A collection of 16 articles. Research Design Review. https://researchdesignreview.com/2022/10/28/unique-attributes-qualitative-research-collection-16-articles/
Roose, K. (2020, October 24). How The Epoch Times created a giant influence machine. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/24/technology/epoch-times-influence-falun-gong.html
Roozenbeek, J., Schneider, C. R., Dryhurst, S., Kerr, J., Freeman, A. L. J., Recchia, G., van der Bles, A. M., & van der Linden, S. (2020). Susceptibility to misinformation about COVID-19 around the world. Royal Society Open Science, 7(10), 201199. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.201199
Roozenbeek, J., van der Linden, S., Goldberg, B., Rathje, S., & Lewandowsky, S. (2022). Psychological inoculation improves resilience against misinformation on social media. Science Advances, 8(34), Article eabo6254. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abo6254
Rosenfeld, S. (2018). Democracy and truth: A short history. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Rummans, T. A., Burton, M. C., & Dawson, N. L. (2018, March). How good intentions contributed to bad outcomes: the opioid crisis. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 93(3), 344–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2017.12.020
Russell, C. (2006, January 1). Covering controversial science: Improving reporting on science and public policy (Publication No. 2006-4). Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics, and Public Policy. https://shorensteincenter.org/covering-controversial-science-improving-reporting-on-science-and-public-policy/
Rutjens, B. T., van der Linden, S., & van der Lee, R. (2021). Science skepticism in times of COVID-19. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 24(2), 276–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220981415
Rutjens, B. T., & Većkalov, B. (2022). Conspiracy beliefs and science rejection. Current Opinion in Psychology, 46, 101392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101392
Ryan, C. D., Schaul, A. J., Butner, R., & Swarthout, J. T. (2020). Monetizing disinformation in the attention economy: The case of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). European Management Journal, 38(1), 7–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2019.11.002
Ryan-Mosley, T. (2021, May 4). The internet is excluding Asian-Americans who don’t speak English. MIT Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview.com/2021/05/04/1024507/asian-american-language-justice-online-hmong/
Sakellari, M. (2015). Cinematic climate change, a promising perspective on climate change communication. Public Understanding of Science, 24(7), 827–841. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662514537028
Saks, E., & Tyson, A. (2022, November 10). Americans report more engagement with science news than in 2017. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/11/10/americans-report-more-engagement-with-science-news-than-in-2017/
Saleem, H. M., & Ruths, D. (2018). The aftermath of disbanding an online hateful community. arXiv. http://arxiv.org/abs/1804.07354
Samudzi, Z. (2017, July 17). We need to talk about anti-vaxxing in black communities. Afro-punk. https://afropunk.com/2017/07/need-talk-anti-vaxxing-black-communities/
Sanchez, G. R., & Bennett, C. (2022, Nov. 4). Why Spanish language mis- and disinformation is a huge issue in 2022. Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/why-spanish-language-mis-and-disinformation-is-a-huge-issue-in-2022/
Santos, H. C., Varnum, M. E. W., & Grossmann, I. (2017). Global increases in individualism. Psychological Science, 28(9), 1228–1239. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617700622
Sassan, C., Mahat, P., Aronczyk, M., & Brulle, R. J. (2023). Energy citizens “just like you”? Public relations campaigning by the climate change counter-movement. Environmental Communication, 17(7), 794–810. https://doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2023.2255388
Satcher, L. A. (2022). Multiply-deserted areas: Environmental racism and food, pharmacy, and greenspace access in the urban south. Environmental Sociology, 8(3), 279–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/23251042.2022.2031513
Scales, D., Gorman, J. M., DiCaprio, P., Hurth, L., Radhakrishnan, M., Windham, S., Akunne, A., Florman, J., Leininger, L., & Starks, T. J. (2023). Community-oriented Motivational Interviewing (MI): A novel framework extending MI to address COVID-19 vaccine misinformation in online social media platforms. Computers in Human Behavior, 141, 107609. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107609
Scales, D., Hurth, L., Xi, W., Gorman, S., Radhakrishnan, M., Windham, S., Akunne, A., Florman, J., Leininger, L., & Gorman, J. (2023). Addressing antivaccine sentiment on public social media forums through web-based conversations based on motivational interviewing techniques: Observational study. JMIR Infodemiology, 3, Article e50138. https://doi.org/10.2196/50138
Schellewald, A. (2021). Communicative forms on TikTok: Perspectives from digital ethnography. International Journal of Communication, 15(2021), 1437–1457. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16414
Scheufele, D. A., Krause, N. M., & Freiling, I. (2021). Misinformed about the “infodemic?” Science’s ongoing struggle with misinformation. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 10(4), 522–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2021.10.009
Schilke, O., Reimann, M., & Cook, K. S. (2021). Trust in social relations. Annual Review of Sociology, 47(1), 239–259. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-082120-082850
Schmid, P., Altay, S., & Scherer, L. D. (2023). The psychological impacts and message features of health misinformation: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. European Psychologist, 28(3), 162–172. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000494
Schmidt, K., & Ernst, E. (2004). Assessing websites on complementary and alternative medicine for cancer. Annals of Oncology, 15(5), 733–742. https://doi.org/10.1093/annonc/mdh174
Schwartz, J. L. (2012). New media, old messages: Themes in the history of vaccine hesitancy and refusal. Virtual Mentor, 14(1), 50–55. https://doi.org/10.1001/virtualmentor.2012.14.1.mhst1-1201
Schwenker, R., Dietrich, C. E., Hirpa, S., Nothacker, M., Smedslund, G., Frese, T., & Unverzagt, S. (2023). Motivational interviewing for substance use reduction. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 12(12), Article CD008063. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008063.pub3
Seah, S., & Weimann, G. (2020). What influences the willingness of Chinese WeChat users to forward food-safety rumors? International Journal of Communication, 14, 22. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/11869
Seale, H., Harris-Roxas, B., Heywood, A., Abdi, I., Mahimbo, A., Chauhan, A., & Woodland, L. (2022). The role of community leaders and other information intermediaries during the COVID-19 pandemic: Insights from the multicultural sector in Australia. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 9, 174. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01196-3
Seifert, C. M. (2002). The continued influence of misinformation in memory: What makes a correction effective? Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 41(2022), 265–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(02)80009-3
Selvaraj, S., Borkar, D. S., & Prasad, V. (2014). Media coverage of medical journals: Do the best articles make the news?. PLoS ONE, 9(1), e85355. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0085355
Senft, T. (2021). COVID-19 Vaccination Rapid Community Assessment teen investigators report. CDC Vaccine Confidence and Demand Team. http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.28648.34560
Sengupta-Irving, T. (2021). Positioning and positioned apart: Mathematics learning as becoming undesirable. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 52(2), 187–208. https://doi.org/10.1111/aeq.12378
Serazio, M. (2021). The other ‘fake’ news: Professional ideals and objectivity ambitions in brand journalism. Journalism, 22(6), 1340–1356. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884919829923
Sesin, C. (2020, December 20). Mistrust, disinformation among Latinos on Covid vaccine has to be tackled, warn Hispanic doctors. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/mistrust-disinformation-among-latinos-covid-vaccine-worries-hispanic-doctors-n1251636
Seth, P., Rudd, R. A., Noonan, R. K., & Haegerich, T. M. (2018). Quantifying the epidemic of prescription opioid overdose deaths. American Journal of Public Health, 108(4), 500–502. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2017.304265
Seymour, B., Getman, R., Saraf, A., Zhang, L. H., & Kalenderian, E. (2015). When advocacy obscures accuracy online: Digital pandemics of public health misinformation through an antifluoride case study. American Journal of Public Health, 105(3), 517–523. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302437
Shafto, P., Eaves, B., Navarro, D. J., & Perfors, A. (2012). Epistemic trust: Modeling children’s reasoning about others’ knowledge and intent. Developmental Science, 15(3), 436–447. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2012.01135.x
Shah, N. (2001). Contagious divides: Epidemics and race in San Francisco’s Chinatown. University of California Press.
Shams, T. (2020). Here, there, and elsewhere: The making of immigrant identities in a globalized world. Stanford University Press.
Shao, C., Ciampaglia, G. L., Flammini, A., & Menczer, F. (2016). Hoaxy: A Platform for tracking online misinformation. In Proceedings of the 25th International Conference Companion on World Wide Web (pp. 745–750). https://doi.org/10.1145/2872518.2890098
Sharifi, M., Asadi-Pooya, A. A., & Mousavi-Roknabadi, R. S. (2020). Burnout among healthcare providers of COVID-19: A systematic review of epidemiology and recommendations. Archives of Academic Emergency Medicine, 9(1), e7. https://doi.org/10.22037/aaem.v9i1.1004
Sheets, L., Johnson, J., Todd, T., Perkins, T., Gu, C., & Rau, M. (2011). Unsupported labeling of race as a risk factor for certain diseases in a widely used medical textbook. Academic Medicine, 86(10), 1300–1303. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0b013e31822bbdb5
Shelton, D. E., Kim, Y. S., & Barak, G. (2006). A study of juror expectations and demands concerning scientific evidence: Does the CSI effect exist. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment & Technology Law, 9(2), 331–368. https://scholarship.law.vanderbilt.edu/jetlaw/vol9/iss2/3/
Shi, Z., Liu, X., & Srinivasan, K. (2022). Hype news diffusion and risk of misinformation: the Oz effect in health care. Journal of Marketing Research, 59(2), 327–352. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022243721104447
Shibutani, T. (1966). Improvised news: A sociological study of rumor. The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc.
Shin, J., & Valente, T. (2020). Algorithms and health misinformation: A case study of vaccine books on Amazon. Journal of Health Communication, 25(5), 394–401. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2020.1776423
Shirk, J. L., Ballard, H. L., Wilderman, C. C., Phillips, T., Wiggins, A., Jordan, R., McCallie, E., Minarchek, M., Lewenstein, B. V., Krasney, M. E., & Bonney, R. (2012). Public participation in scientific research: A framework for deliberate design. Ecology and Society, 17(2). https://www.jstor.org/stable/26269051
Shu, K., Silva, A, Wang, S., Tang, J., & Liu, H. (2017). Fake news detection on social media: A data mining perspective. ACM SIGKDD Explorations Newsletter, 19(1), 22–36. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1708.01967
Shuman, E. L. (1894). Steps into journalism; helps and hints for young writers. Correspondence School of Journalism.
Siegrist, M., Gutscher, H., & Earle, T. C. (2005). Perception of risk: The influence of general trust, and general confidence. Journal of Risk Research, 8(2), 145–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/1366987032000105315
SignalFire. (2020, November 29). SignalFire’s creator economy market map. https://www.signalfire.com/blog/creator-economy
Silverman, C., & Alexander, L. (2016). How teens in the Balkans are duping Trump supporters with fake news. Buzzfeed News. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/how-macedonia-became-a-global-hub-for-pro-trump-misinfo
Simon, H. A. (1988). The science of design: Creating the artificial. Design Issues, 4(1/2), 67–82. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1511391
Simonov, A., Sacher, S., Dubé, J. P., & Biswas, S. (2022). Frontiers: the persuasive effect of Fox News: Noncompliance with social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic. Marketing Science, 41(2), 230–242. https://doi.org/10.1287/mksc.2021.1328
Simpson, E., & Conner, A. (2020, August 18). Fighting Coronavirus misinformation and disinformation. Center for American Progress. https://www.americanprogress.org/article/fighting-coronavirus-misinformation-disinformation/
Singh, K., Lima, G., Cha, M., Cha, C., Kulshrestha, J., Ahn, Y.-Y., & Varol, O. (2022). Misinformation, believability, and vaccine acceptance over 40 countries: Takeaways from the initial phase of the COVID-19 infodemic. PLoS One, 17(2), e0263381. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263381
Sirlin, N., Epstein, Z., Arechar, A. A., & Rand, D. G. (2021). Digital literacy is associated with more discerning accuracy judgments but not sharing intentions. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 2(6). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-83
Slater, M. D. (2007). Reinforcing spirals: The mutual influence of media selectivity and media effects and their impact on individual behavior and social identity. Communication Theory, 17(3), 281–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2007.00296.x
Smedley, B. D. (2012). The lived experience of race and its health consequences. American Journal of Public Health, 102(5), 933–935. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300643
Smith, H., Markowitz, D. M., & Gilbert, C. (2022). Science training for political reporters: Understanding impact with a mixed methods approach. Journalism Practice, 18(4), 938–953. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2022.2065337
Smith, J. E. H. (2023). “I believe because it is absurd”; or, pseudoscience. In A. Finger & M. Wagner (Eds.), Bias, belief, and conviction in an age of fake facts (pp. 59–85). Routledge.
Smith, L. T. (1999). Decolonizing methodologies: Research and Indigenous peoples. Zed Books Ltd.
Smith, N., & Graham, T. (2019). Mapping the anti-vaccination movement on Facebook. Information, Communication & Society, 22(9), 1310–1327. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1418406
Smith, N., & Rock, J. (2014). Documentary as a statement: Defining old genre in a new age. Journal of Media Practice, 15(1), 58–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/14682753.2014.892698
Smith-Roberts, A. (2018). Facebook, fake news, and the first amendment. Denver Law Review Forum, 95, Article 21, 118–126. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/dlrforum/vol95/iss1/21
Sobieraj, S., & Berry, J. M. (2011). From incivility to outrage: Political discourse in blogs, talk radio, and cable news. Political Communication, 28(1), 19–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2010.542360
Søe, S. O. (2021). A unified account of information, misinformation, and disinformation. Synthese, 198(6), 5929–5949. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-019-02444-x
Somerville, R. C. J., & Hassol, J. (2011). Communicating the science of climate change. Physics Today, 64(10), 48–53. https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.1296
Sørensen, K., Pelikan, J. M., Röthlin, F., Ganahl, K., Slonska, Z., Doyle, G., Fullam, J., Kondilis, B., Agrafiotis, D., Uiters, E., Falcon, M., Mensing, M., Tchamov, K., Broucke, S. van den, & Brand, H. (2015). Health literacy in Europe: Comparative results of the European health literacy survey (HLS-EU). European Journal of Public Health, 25(6), 1053–1058. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckv043
Soto-Vásquez, A. D. (2023). A review of academic literature on U.S. Latinos and disinformation. Digital Democracy Institute of the Americas. https://ddia.org/en/review-of-literature-on-us-latinos-and-disinformation
Soto-Vásquez, A. D., Gonzalez, A. A., Shi, W., Garcia, N., & Hernandez, J. (2020). COVID-19: Contextualizing misinformation flows in a US Latinx border community (media and communication during COVID-19). Howard Journal of Communications, 32(5), 421–439. https://doi.org/10.1080/10646175.2020.1860839
Southwell, B. G. (2005). Between messages and people: A multilevel model of memory for television content. Communication Research, 32(1), 112–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650204271401
Southwell, B. G., Brennen, J. S. B., Paquin, R., Boudewyns, V., & Zeng, J. (2022). Defining and measuring scientific misinformation. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 700(1), 98–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027162221084709
Southwell, B., Corin, D., Eck, M., Hessenius, A., Li, L., Magnuson, A., Parkman, J., Sauer, R., Turner, C., & Stansbury, S. (2021). Dimensions of trust and information seeking on natural disasters, hazards, and extreme weather in North Carolina (USA). European Meteorological Society Annual Meeting Abstracts, 18, Article EMS2021-25. https://doi.org/10.5194/ems2021-25
Southwell, B. G., Niederdeppe, J., Cappella, J. N., Gaysynsky, A., Kelley, D. E., Oh, A., Peterson, E. B., & Chou, W. S. (2019). Misinformation as a misunderstood challenge to public health. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 57(2), 282–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2019.03.009
Southwell, B. G., Otero Machuca, J., Cherry, S. T., Burnside, M., & Barrett, N. J. (2023). Health misinformation exposure and health disparities: Observations and opportunities. Annual Review of Public Health, 44, 113–130. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publ-health-071321-031118
Southwell, B. G., & Thorson, E. A. (2015). The prevalence, consequence, and remedy of misinformation in mass media systems. Journal of Communication, 65(4), 589–595. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12168
Southwell, B. G., Thorson, E. A., & Sheble, L. (Eds.). (2018). Misinformation and mass audiences. University of Texas Press.
Spampatti, T., Hahnel, U. J. J., Trutnevyte, E., & Brosch, T. (2024). Psychological inoculation strategies to fight climate disinformation across 12 countries. Nature Human Behaviour, 8, 380–398. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01736-0
Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (2000). Advancing the rationality debate. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23(5), 701–717. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00623439
Starbird, K. (2023, September 18). A battle for better information. The Lawfare Institute. https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/a-battle-for-better-information
Stecula, D. A., Motta, M., Kuru, O., & Jamieson, K. H. (2022). The great and powerful Dr. Oz? Alternative health media consumption and vaccine views in the United States. Journal of Communication, 72(3), 374–400. https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqac011
Steelman, T. A., McCaffrey, S. M., Velez, A.-L. K., & Briefel, J. A. (2015). What information do people use, trust, and find useful during a disaster? Evidence from five large wildfires. Natural Hazards, 76(1), 615–634. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-014-1512-x
Stefanik-Sidener, K. (2013). Nature, nurture, or that fast food hamburger: Media framing of diabetes in the New York Times from 2000 to 2010. Health Communication, 28(4), 351–358. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2012.688187
Steg, L. (2016). Values, norms, and intrinsic motivation to act proenvironmentally. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 41, 277–292.
___. (2023). Psychology of climate change. Annual Review of Psychology, 74, 391–421. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-032720-042905
Steiger, M., Bharucha, T. J., Venkatagiri, S., Riedl, M. J., & Lease, M. (2021, May). The psychological well-being of content moderators: The emotional labor of commercial moderation and avenues for improving support. Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Article 341. https://doi.org/10.1145/3411764.3445092
Steinke, J., Gilbert, C., Opat, K., & Landrum, A. R. (2024). Fostering inclusive science media: Insights from examining the relationship between women’s identities and their anticipated engagement with Deep Look YouTube science videos. PLoS One, 19(8), e0308558. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308558
Stevens, G. A., Bennett, J. E., Hennocq, Q., Lu, Y., De-Regil, L. M., Rogers, L., Danaei, G., Li, G., White, R. A., Flaxman, S. R., Oehrle, S.-P., Finucane, M. M., Guerrero, R., Bhutta, Z. A., Then-Paulino, A., Fawzi, W., Black, R. E., & Ezzati, M. (2015). Trends and mortality effects of vitamin A deficiency in children in 138 low-income and middle-income countries between 1991 and 2013: A pooled analysis of population-based surveys. The Lancet Global Health, 3(9), e528–e536. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(15)00039-X
Stone, W. (2021). An anti-vaccine film targeted to Black Americans spreads false information. KFF Health News. https://kffhealthnews.org/news/article/an-anti-vaccine-film-targetedto-black-americans-spreads-false-information/
Stormacq, C., Van den Broucke, S., & Wosinski, J. (2019). Does health literacy mediate the relationship between socioeconomic status and health disparities? Integrative review. Health Promotion International, 34(5), e1–e17. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/day062
Strange, J. J., & Leung, C. C. (1999). How anecdotal accounts in news and in fiction can influence judgments of a social problem’s urgency, causes, and cures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(4), 436–449. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167299025004004
Stroud, N. J. (2008). Media use and political predispositions: Revisiting the concept of selective exposure. Political Behavior, 30(3), 341–366. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-007-9050-9
___. (2010). Polarization and partisan selective exposure. Journal of Communication, 60(3), 556-576. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2010.01497.x
___. (2011). Niche news: The politics of news choice. Oxford University Press.
Stroupe, D. (2014). Examining classroom science practice communities: How teachers and students negotiate epistemic agency and learn science-as-practice. Science Education, 98(3), 487–516. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21112
Stryker, C., & Kavlakoglu, E. (2024). What is AI? IBM. https://www.ibm.com/topics/artificial-intelligence
Su, S. (2022). Updating politicized beliefs: How motivated reasoning contributes to polarization. Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics, 96, 101799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2021.101799
Suarez-Lledo, V., & Alvarez-Galvez, J. (2021). Prevalence of health misinformation on social media: Systematic review. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23(1), p.e17187. https://doi.org/10.2196/17187
Sugihara, G., May, R., Ye, H., Hsieh, C. H., Deyle, E., Fogarty, M., & Munch, S. (2012). Detecting causality in complex ecosystems. Science, 338(6106), 496–500. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1227079
Suldovsky, B. (2016). In science communication, why does the idea of the public deficit always return? Exploring key influences. Public Understanding of Science, 25(4), 415–426. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662516629750
Sumner, P., Vivian-Griffiths, S., Boivin, J., Williams, A., Venetis, C. A., Davies, A., Ogden, J., Whelan, L., Hughes, B., Dalton, B., Boy, F., & Chambers, C. C. (2014). The association between exaggeration in health related science news and academic press releases: retrospective observational study. BMJ, 349, g7015. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g7015
Supran, G., & Oreskes, N. (2017). Assessing ExxonMobil’s climate change communications (1977–2014). Environmental Research Letters 12(8), 084019. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa815f
___. (2021). Rhetoric and frame analysis of ExxonMobil’s climate change communications. One Earth, 4(5), 696–719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2021.04.014
Susmann, M. W., & Wegener, D. T. (2023). How attitudes impact the continued influence effect of misinformation: The mediating role of discomfort. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 49(5), 744–757. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672221077519
Swire-Thompson, B., Cook, J., Butler, L. H., Sanderson, J. A., Lewandowsky, S., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2021). Correction format has a limited role when debunking misinformation. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 6, 83. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-021-00346-6
Swire-Thompson, B., DeGutis, J., & Lazer, D. (2020). Searching for the backfire effect: Measurement and design considerations. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 9(3), 286–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.06.006
Swire-Thompson, B., Dobbs, M., Thomas, A., & DeGutis, J. (2023). Memory failure predicts belief regression after the correction of misinformation. Cognition, 230, 105276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105276
Swire-Thompson, B., & Lazer, D. (2020). Public health and online misinformation: Challenges and recommendations. Annual Review of Public Health, 41, 433–451. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040119-094127
___. (2022). Reducing health misinformation in science: A call to arms. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 700(1), 124–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027162221087686
Taber, C. S., & Lodge, M. (2006). Motivated skepticism in the evaluation of political beliefs. American Journal of Political Science, 50(3), 755–769. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.15405907.2006.00214.x
Taddeo, M. (2009). Defining trust and e-trust: From old theories to new problems. International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, 5(2), 23–35. https://doi.org/10.4018/jthi.2009040102
Tanner, A. H. (2004). Agenda building, source selection, and health news at local television stations: A nationwide survey of local television health reporters. Science Communication, 25(4), 350–363. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547004265127
Tay, L. Q., Lewandowsky, S., Hurlstone, M. J., Kurz, T., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2023). A focus shift in the evaluation of misinformation interventions. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 4(5). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-124
Taylor, L. E., Swerdfeger, A. L., & Eslick, G. D. (2014). Vaccines are not associated with autism: An evidence-based meta-analysis of case-control and cohort studies. Vaccine, 32(29), 3623–3629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.04.085
Teaiwa, T. K. (1994). Bikinis and other s/pacific n/oceans. The Contemporary Pacific, 6(1), 87–109. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23701591
Tenhundfeld, N. L., de Visser, E. J., Ries, A. J., Finomore, V. S., & Tossell, C. C. (2020). Trust and distrust of automated parking in a Tesla Model X. Human Factors, 62(2). 194–210. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720819865412
Teplinsky, E., Ponce, S. B., Drake, E. K., Garcia, A. M., Loeb, S., van Londen, G. J., Teoh, D., Thompson, M., & Schapira, L. (2022). Online medical misinformation in cancer: Distinguishing fact from fiction. JCO Oncology Practice, 18(8), 584–589. https://doi.org/10.1200/OP.21.00764
Terren, L., & Borge, R. (2021). Echo chambers on social media: A systematic review of the literature. Review of Communication Research, 9, 99–118. https://doi.org/10.12840/ISSN.2255-4165.028
Tessler, H., Choi, M., & Kao, G. (2020). The anxiety of being Asian American: Hate crimes and negative biases during the COVID-19 pandemic. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45, 636–646. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09541-5
Thacker, P. D. (2022). Stealing from the tobacco playbook, fossil fuel companies pour money into elite American universities. BMJ, 378, o2095. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.o2095
Thomas, D. R., & Wahedi, L. A. (2023). Disrupting hate: The effect of deplatforming hate organizations on their online audience. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(24), e2214080120. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2214080120
Tichenor, P., Donohue, G., & Olien, C. (1980). Community conflict and the press. Sage Publications.
Tomes, N., & Parry, M. S. (2022). What are the historical roots of the COVID-19 infodemic? Lessons From the past (WHO Health Evidence Network Synthesis Report No. 77). World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK585501/
Torres, A., Pina, G., Southwell, B., & Garcia-Baza, I. (2023). Can local TV news affect parents’ perceptions of parenting and child development research? Evidence from the Positive Parenting Newsfeed Project. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 29(1), 106–124. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000369
Traberg, C. S., Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2022). Psychological inoculation against misinformation: Current evidence and future directions. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 700(1), 136–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027162221087936
Trauthig, I. K., & Woolley, S. C. (2023). “On WhatsApp I say what I want”: Messaging apps, diaspora communities, and networked counterpublics in the United States. New Media & Society, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448231203695
Trezza D. (2023). To scrape or not to scrape, this is dilemma. The post-API scenario and implications on digital research. Frontiers in Sociology, 8, 1145038. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2023.1145038.
Tripodi, F. B. (2022). The propagandists’ playbook: How conservative elites manipulate search and threaten democracy. Yale University Press.
Tripodi, F. B., & Dave, A. (2023). Abortion near me? The implications of semantic media on accessing health information. Social Media + Society, 9(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051231195548
Tripodi, F. B., Garcia, L. C., & Marwick, A. E. (2024). ‘Do your own research’: Affordance activation and disinformation spread. Information, Communication & Society, 27(6), 1212–1228. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2023.2245869
Tromble, R. (2021). Where have all the data gone? A critical reflection on academic digital research in the post-API age. Social Media+ Society, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305121988929
Tsfati, Y., Boomgaarden, H. G., Strömbäck, J., Vliegenthart, R., Damstra, A., & Lindgren, E. (2020). Causes and consequences of mainstream media dissemination of fake news: Literature review and synthesis. ANNALS of the International Communication Association, 44(2), 157–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2020.1759443
Tucker, J. A., Guess, A., Barbera, P., Vaccari, C, Siegel, A, Sanovich, S., Stukal, D, & Nyhan, B. (2018, March 19). Social media, political polarization, and political disinformation: A review of the scientific literature. Social Science Research Network. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3144139
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185(4157), 1124–1131. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.185.4157.1124
Union of Concerned Scientists. (2019, April 9). Purdue Pharma’s use of hospital, academic ties helped fuel opioid crisis. https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/disinformation-playbook-purdue-pharma
University of Maryland School of Public Health, (n.d.). The Health Advocates In-Reach and Research Campaign (HAIR): Maryland Center for Health Equity. https://sph.umd.edu/hair
Unkelbach, C., Koch, A., Silva, R. R., & Garcia-Marques, T. (2019). Truth by repetition: Explanations and implications. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721419827854
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2022, June 2). FDA 101: Dietary supplements. https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/fda-101-dietary-supplements
U.S. National Cancer Institute. (2017). A socioecological approach to addressing tobacco-related health disparities (NIH Publication No. 17-CA-8035A). National Cancer Institute Tobacco Control Monograph 22. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. https://cancercontrol.cancer.gov/brp/tcrb/monographs/monograph-22#chapters
U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (2024, April 30). Breast cancer: Screening. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/recommendation/breast-cancer-screening#bcei-recommendation-title-area
Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2013). The differential susceptibility to media effects model. Journal of Communication, 63(2), 221–243. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12024
Van Aelst, P., Toth, F., Castro, L., Štětka, V., Vreese, C. D., Aalberg, T., Cardenal, A. S., Corbu, N., Esser, F., Hopman, D. N., Koc-Michalska, K., Matthes, J., Schemer, C., Sheafer, T., Splendore, S., Stanyer, J., Stępińska, A., Strömbäck, J., & Theocharis, Y. (2021). Does a crisis change news habits? A comparative study of the effects of COVID-19 on news media use in 17 European countries. Digital Journalism, 9(9), 1208–1238. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2021.1943481
Van Bavel, J. J., Harris, E. A., Pärnamets, P., Rathje, S., Doell, K. C., & Tucker, J. A. (2021). Political psychology in the digital (mis)information age: A model of news belief and sharing. Social Issues and Policy Review, 15(1), 84–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12077
van den Besselaar, P., & Heimeriks, G. (2001). Disciplinary, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary - Concepts and indicators. In M. Davis & C. S. Wilson (Eds.), 8th international conference on scientometrics and informetrics (pp. 705–716).
van der Linden, S. (2015). The conspiracy-effect: Exposure to conspiracy theories (about global warming) decreases pro-social behavior and science acceptance. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 171–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.045
van der Linden, S., Albarracín, D., Fazio, L., Freelon, D., Roozenbeek, J., Swire-Thompson, B., & Van Bavel, J. (2023, November). Using psychological science to understand and fight health misinformation. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/pubs/reports/misinformation-consensus-statement.pdf
van der Linden, S., Panagopoulos, C., & Roozenbeek, J. (2020). You are fake news: Political bias in perceptions of fake news. Media, Culture & Society, 42(3), 460–470. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443720906992
van der Vlist, F. N., Helmond, A., Burkhardt, M., & Seitz, T. (2022). API governance: the case of Facebook’s evolution. Social Media+ Society, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051221086228
Van Duyn, E., & Collier, J. (2019). Priming and fake news: The effects of elite discourse on evaluations of news media. Mass Communication and Society, 22(1), 29–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2018.1511807
van Kampen, K., Laski, J., Herman, G., & Chan, T. M. (2022). Investigating COVID-19 vaccine communication and misinformation on TikTok: Cross-sectional study. JMIR Infodemiology, 2(2), e38316. https://doi.org/10.2196/38316
van Prooijen, J. W., & Acker, M. (2015). The influence of control on belief in conspiracy theories: Conceptual and applied extensions. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 29(5), 753–761. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3161
van Prooijen, J. W., & Böhm, N. (2023). Do conspiracy theories shape or rationalize vaccination hesitancy over time? Social Psychological and Personality Science, 15(4), 421–429. https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506231181659
van Prooijen, J. W., Ligthart, J., Rosema, S., & Xu, Y. (2022a). The entertainment value of conspiracy theories. British Journal of Psychology, 113(1), 25–48. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12522
van Prooijen, J. W., Spadaro, G., & Wang, H. (2022b). Suspicion of institutions: How distrust and conspiracy theories deteriorate social relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 43, 65–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.06.013
van Schalkwyk, F., & Dudek, J. (2022). Reporting preprints in the media during the COVID-19 pandemic. Public Understanding of Science, 31(5), 608–616. https://doi.org/10.1177/09636625221077392
Vandenbergh, M., & Gilligan, J. M. (2017). Beyond politics: The private governance response to climate change. Cambridge University Press.
Vandenbergh, M., Light, S. E., & Salzman, J. (2024). Private environmental governance. West Academic.
Vaportzis, E., Clausen, M. G., & Gow, A. J. (2017). Older adults perceptions of technology and barriers to interacting with tablet computers: A focus group study. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article 1687. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01687
Vargo, C. J., Guo, L., & Amazeen, M. A. (2018). The agenda-setting power of fake news: A big data analysis of the online media landscape from 2014 to 2016. New Media & Society, 20(5), 2028–2049. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444817712086
Varkey B. (2021). Principles of clinical ethics and their application to practice. Medical Principles and Practice, 30(1), 17–28. https://doi.org/10.1159/000509119
Vassilakopoulou, P., & Hustad, E. (2021). Bridging digital divides: A literature review and research agenda for information systems research. Information Systems Frontiers, 25, 955–969. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-020-10096-3
Vegetti, F., & Mancosu, M. (2020). The impact of political sophistication and motivated reasoning on misinformation. Political Communication, 37(5), 678–695. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2020.1744778
Velásquez, N., Leahy, R., Restrepo, N. J., Lupu, Y., Sear, R., Gabriel, N., Jha, O. K., Goldberg, B., & Johnson, N. F. (2021). Online hate network spreads malicious COVID-19 content outside the control of individual social media platforms. Scientific Reports, 11, 11549. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-89467-y
Vespa, J., Medina, L., & Armstrong, D. M. (2020, February). Demographic turning points for the United States: Population projections for 2020 to 2060 (Current Populations Report No. P25-1144). U.S. Census Bureau. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2020/demo/p25-1144.pdf
Vincent, E. M., Théro, H., & Shabayek, S. (2022). Measuring the effect of Facebook’s down-ranking interventions against groups and websites that repeatedly share misinformation. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 3(3). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-100
Vinck, P., Pham, P. N., Bindu, K. K., Bedford, J., & Nilles, E. J. (2019). Institutional trust and misinformation in the response to the 2018–19 Ebola outbreak in North Kivu, DR Congo: A population-based survey. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 19(5), 529–536. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30063-5
The Virality Project. (2022, February). Memes, magnets and microchips: Narrative dynamics around COVID-19 vaccines. Stanford Digital Repository. https://doi.org/10.25740/mx395xj8490
Visperas, C. M. (2022). Skin theory: Visual culture and the postwar prison laboratory. New York University Press.
Viswanath, K. (2006). Public communications and its role in reducing and eliminating health disparities. In G. E. Thompson, F. Mitchell, & M. B. Williams (Eds.), Examining the health disparities research plan of the National Institutes of Health: Unfinished business. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/11602
Viswanath, K., Bekalu, M., Dhawan, D., Pinnamaneni, R., Lang, J., & McLoud, R. (2021). Individual and social determinants of COVID-19 vaccine uptake. BMC Public Health, 21(1), 818. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-10862-1
Viswanath, K., & Finnegan, J. R. (1996). The knowledge gap hypothesis: Twenty-five years later. Annals of the International Communication Association, 19(1), 187–228. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.1996.11678931
Viswanath, K., Kosicki, G. M., Fredin, E. S., & Park, E. (2000). Local community ties, community-boundedness, and local public affairs knowledge gaps. Communication Research, 27(1), 27–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365000027001002
Viswanath, K., Lee, E. J., & Dryer, E. (2024). Communication inequalities and incomplete data hinder understanding of how social media affect vaccine uptake. BMJ, 385, e076478. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2023-076478
Viswanath K., Lee E. W., & Pinnamaneni R. (2020). We need the lens of equity in COVID-19 communication. Health Communication, 35(14), 1743–1746. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2020.1837445
Viswanath, K., McCloud, R. F., & Bekalu, M. A. (2022a). Communication, health, and equity: Structural influences. In T. L. Thompson & N. G. Harrington (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of health communication (3rd ed., pp. 426–440). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
___. (2022b). Communication, health, and equity: Structural influences. In T. L. Thompson & N. G. Harrington (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of health communication (3rd ed., pp. 426–440). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Viswanath, K., McCloud, R. F., Lee, E. W. J., & Bekalu, M. A. (2022c). Measuring what matters: Data absenteeism, science communication, and the perpetuation of inequities. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 700(1), 208–219. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027162221093268
Viswanath, K., Nagler, R. H., Bigman-Galimore, C. A., McCauley, M. P., Jung, M., & Ramanadhan, S. (2012). The communications revolution and health inequalities in the 21st century: Implications for cancer control. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, 21(10), 1701–1708. https://doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-12-0852
Voss, M. (2002). Checking the pulse: Midwestern reporters’ opinions on their ability to report health care news. American Journal of Public Health, 92(7), 1158–1160. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.92.7.1158
Vraga, E. K., & Bode, L. (2020). Defining misinformation and understanding its bounded nature: Using expertise and evidence for describing misinformation. Political Communication, 37(1), 136–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2020.1716500
Waddell, K., & Bergmann, A. (2020, August 13). On social media, only some lies are against the rules. Consumer Reports. https://www.consumerreports.org/social-media/social-mediamisinformation-policies/
Waddell, M. (2023, May 17). The science on GMOs isn’t settled – here’s why. Non-GMO Project. https://www.nongmoproject.org/blog/the-science-on-gmos-isnt-settled-heres-why/
Wagner, D. N., Marcon, A. R., & Caulfield, T. (2020). “Immune Boosting” in the time of COVID: Selling immunity on Instagram. Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology, 16(76), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13223-020-00474-6
Wagoner, K. G., Lazard, A. J., Romero-Sandoval, E. A., & Reboussin, B. A. (2021). Health claims about cannabidiol products: A retrospective analysis of U.S. Food and Drug Administration warning letters from 2015 to 2019. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research, 6(6), 559–563. https://doi.org/10.1089/can.2020.0166
Wailoo, K. (2021). Pushing cool: Big tobacco, racial marketing, and the untold story of the menthol cigarette. University of Chicago Press.
Wakefield, A. J., Murch, S. H., Anthony, A., Linnell, J., Casson, D. M., Malik, M., Berelowitz, M., Dhillon, A. P., Thomson, M. A., Harvey, P., Valentine, A., Davies, S. E., & Walker-Smith, J. A. (1998). Ileal-lymphoid-nodular hyperplasia, non-specific colitis, and pervasive developmental disorder in children. Lancet, 351(9103), 637–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(97)11096-0
Wall, L. L. (2006). The medical ethics of Dr J Marion Sims: A fresh look at the historical record. Journal of Medical Ethics, 32(6), 346–350. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.2005.012559
Walsh, E. M., & Tsurusaki, B. K. (2018). “Thank you for being epublican”: Negotiating science and political identities in climate change learning. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 27(1), 8–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508406.2017.1362563
Walsh-Childers, K., Braddock, J., Rabaza, C., & Schwitzer, G. (2018). One step forward, one step back: Changes in news coverage of medical interventions. Health Communication, 33(2), 174–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2016.1250706
Walters, W. H., & Wilder, E. I. (2023). Fabrication and errors in the bibliographic citations generated by ChatGPT. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 14045. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41032-5
Wang, L., Yue, M., & Wang, G. (2023). Too real to be questioned: Analysis of the factors influencing the spread of online scientific rumors in China. Sage Open, 13(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440231215586
Wang, R., He, Y., Xu, J., & Zhang, H. (2020). Fake news or bad news? Toward an emotion-driven cognitive dissonance model of misinformation diffusion. Asian Journal of Communication, 30(5), 317–342. https://doi.org/10.1080/01292986.2020.1811737
Wanless, A., & Berk, M. (2019). The audience is the amplifier: Participatory propaganda. In P. Baines, N. O’Shaughnessy, & N. Snow (Eds.), The Sage handbook of propaganda (pp. 85–104). Sage.
___. (2021). The changing nature of propaganda: Coming to terms with influence in conflict. In T. Clack & R. Johnson (Eds.), The world information war: Western resilience, campaigning, and cognitive effects (pp. 63–80). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003046905-7
Ward, S. J. A. (2010). Inventing objectivity: New philosophical foundations. In C. Meyers (Ed.), Journalism ethics: A philosophical approach (pp. 137–152). Oxford University Press.
Wardle, C. (2023). Misunderstanding misinformation. Issues in Science and Technology, 39(3), 38–40. https://doi.org/10.58875/ZAUD1691
Wardle, C., & Derakhshan, H. (2017, September). Information disorder: Toward an interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making (Council of Europe Report No. DGI(2017)09). Council of Europe. https://edoc.coe.int/en/media/7495-information-disorder-toward-an-interdisciplinary-framework-for-research-and-policy-making.html
Waruwu, B. K., Tandoc Jr., E. C., Duffy, A., Kim, N., & Ling, R. (2021). Telling lies together? Sharing news as a form of social authentication. New Media & Society, 23(9), 2516–2533. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820931017
Watts, D. J., Rothschild, D. M., & Mobius, M. (2021). Measuring the news and its impact on democracy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118(15), e1912443118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1912443118
Wayback Machine. (n.d.). HealthNewsReview.Org: Improving your critical thinking about health care. https://web.archive.org/web/20220803193934/https://www.healthnewsreview.org/
Webster, J., & Phalen, P. F. (1996). The mass audience: Rediscovering the dominant model. Routledge.
Weeks, B., & Southwell, B. (2010). The symbiosis of news coverage and aggregate online search behavior: Obama, rumors, and presidential politics. Mass Communication and Society, 13(4), 341–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205430903470532
Wehrman, A. M. (2022). The contagion of liberty. John Hopkins University Press.
___. (1972). Science and trans-science. Science, 177(4045), 211. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.177.4045.211
Weingart, P. (2017). Is there a hype problem in science? If so, how is it addressed. In K. H. Jamieson, D. Kahan, & D. Scheufele (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of the science of science communication (pp. 111–118). Oxford University Press.
West, J. D. (2023, March 31). The chatbot era: Better or worse off? The Seattle Times. https://www.seattletimes.com/opinion/the-chatbot-era-better-or-worse-off/
West, J. D., & Bergstrom, C. T. (2021). Misinformation in and about science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(15), e1912444117. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1912444117
Whitacre, B., Strover, S., & Gallardo, R. (2015). How much does broadband infrastructure matter? Decomposing the metro–non-metro adoption gap with the help of the National Broadband Map. Government Information Quarterly, 32(3), 261–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2015.03.002
Whyte, K. P., Brewer, J. P., & Johnson, J. T. (2016). Weaving Indigenous science, protocols and sustainability science. Sustainability Science, 11(1), 25–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-015-0296-6
Wilhelm, E. (2023). Community stories guide – Understanding community information needs through stories. Information Futures Lab. https://communitystoriesguide.org/
Wilkie, W. L., McNeill, D. L., & Mazis, M. B. (1984). Marketing’s “Scarlet Letter”: The theory and practice of corrective advertising. Journal of Marketing, 48(2), 11–31. https://doi.org/10.2307/1251211
Williams, D. (2024, January 10). Misinformation researchers are wrong: There can’t be a science of misleading content. Conspicuous Cognition. https://www.conspicuouscognition.com/p/misinformation-researchers-are-wrong
Williams, E. L., Bartone, S. A., Swanson, E. K., & Stokes, L. C. (2022). The American electric utility industry’s role in promoting climate denial, doubt, and delay. Environmental Research Letters, 17(9), 094026. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac8ab3
Wilson, S. L., & Wiysonge, C. (2020). Social media and vaccine hesitancy. BMJ Global Health, 5(10), e004206. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-004206
Wineburg, S., Breakstone, J., McGrew, S., Smith, M. D., & Ortega, T. (2022). Lateral reading on the open Internet: A district-wide field study in high school government classes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 114(5), 893–909. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000740
Wineburg, S., & McGrew, S. (2019). Lateral reading and the nature of expertise: Reading less and learning more when evaluating digital information. Teachers College Record, 121(11), 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811912101102
Wojcieszak, M. (2021). What predicts selective exposure online: Testing political attitudes, credibility, and social identity. Communication Research, 48(5), 687–716. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650219844868
Wolfe, S. M. (2002). Direct-to-consumer advertising—education or emotion promotion? New England Journal of Medicine, 346(7), 524–526. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200202143460713
Wolkoff, K. N. (1996). The problem of holocaust denial literature in libraries. Library Trends, 45(1), 87–96. https://hdl.handle.net/2142/8070
Woloshin, S., & Schwartz, L. M. (2006). Giving legs to restless legs: A case study of how the media helps make people sick. PLoS Medicine, 3(4), e170. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0030170
Woloshin, S., Schwartz, L. M., Casella, S. L., Kennedy, A. T., & Larson, R. J. (2009a). Press releases by academic medical centers: Not so academic? Annals of Internal Medicine, 150(9), 613–618. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-150-9-200905050-00007
Woloshin, S., Schwartz, L. M., & Kramer, B. S. (2009b). Promoting healthy skepticism in the news: Helping journalists get it right. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 101(23), 1596–1599. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djp409
Wood, T., & Porter, E. (2019). The elusive backfire effect: Mass attitudes’ steadfast factual adherence. Political Behavior, 41, 135–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9443-y
Woolf, S. H., & Harris, R. (2012). The harms of screening: New attention to an old concern. JAMA, 307(6), 565–566. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2012.100
Woolston, C. (2018, October 4). University tenure decisions still gloss over scientists’ public outreach. Nature News. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-06906-z
World Health Organization (WHO). (n.d.) Infodemic. https://www.who.int/health-topics/infodemic
___. (2014, May 1). Food, genetically modified. https://www.who.int/news-room/questionsand-answers/item/food-genetically-modified
World Health Organization (WHO) & UNICEF. (2023). How to build an infodemic insights report in six steps. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/370317/9789240075658-eng.pdf?sequence=1
Wu, F., Wesseler, J., Zilberman, D., Russell, R. M., Chen, C., & Dubock, A. C. (2021). Allow Golden Rice to save lives. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(51), Article e2120901118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2120901118
Wu, S., Zhang, J., & Du, L. (2024). “I do not trust health information shared by my parents”: Credibility judgement of health (mis)information on social media in China. Health Communication, 39(1), 96–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2022.2159143
Xu, W., & Sasahara, K. (2022). Characterizing the roles of bots on Twitter during the COVID-19 infodemic. Journal of Computational Social Science, 5, 591–609. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42001-021-00139-3
Yang, F., & Horning, M. (2020). Reluctant to share: How third person perceptions of fake news discourage news readers from sharing “real news” on social media. Social Media+ Society, 6(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120955173
Yang, K. C., Pierri, F., Hui, P.-M., Axelrod, D., Torres-Lugo, C., Bryden, J., & Menczer, F. (2021). The COVID-19 infodemic: Twitter versus Facebook. Big Data & Society, 8(1), http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/20539517211013861
Yang, Y., Davis, T., & Hindman, M. (2023). Visual misinformation on Facebook. Journal of Communication, 73(4), 316–328. https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqac051
Yavchitz, A., Boutron, I., Bafeta, A., Marroun, I., Charles, P., Mantz, J., & Ravaud, P. (2012). Misrepresentation of randomized controlled trials in press releases and news coverage: A cohort study. PLoS Medicine, 9(9), Article e1001308. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001308
Yeh, D. A., Gomez, M. I., & Kaiser, H. M. (2019). Signaling impacts of GMO labeling on fruit and vegetable demand. PLoS One, 14(10), e0223910. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223910
Yeo, S. K., & Silberg, J. N. (2021). Environmental documentaries in a digital age should be ethical, not just captivating. One Earth, 4(6), 780–782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2021.05.016
Yeo, S. K., Xenos, M. A., Brossard, D., & Scheufele, D. A. (2015). Selecting our own science: How communication contexts and individual traits shape information seeking. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 658(1), 172–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716214557782
Yip, J., Roldan, W., Gonzalez, C., Pina, L. R., Ruiz, M., & Vanegas, P. (2022). Youth invisible work: The sociocultural and collaborative processes of online search and brokering between adolescents and English-language learning families. Information and Learning Science, 123(7/8), 330–350. https://doi.org/10.1108/ILS-01-2022-0004
Young, D. G. (2023a). Wrong: How media, politics and identity drive our appetite for misinformation. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Young, D. G., Jamieson, K. H., Poulsen, S., & Goldring, A. (2018). Fact-checking effectiveness as a function of format and tone: Evaluating FactCheck.org and FlackCheck.org. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 95(1), 49–75. fhttps://doi.org/10.1177/1077699017710453
Young, D. G., & Miller, J. M. (2023c). Political communication. In L. Huddy, D. Sears, J. Levy, & J. Jerit (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of political psychology (3rd ed., pp. 555–600). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197541302.013.15
Young, J. (2023b, April 19). Misinformation in rural and indigenous communities [PowerPoint Slides]. University of Washington. Available on request in the National Academies’ Public Access Files.
Young, J. C., Boyd, B., Yefimova, K., Wedlake, S., Coward, C., & Hapel, R. (2021). The role of libraries in misinformation programming: A research agenda. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 53(4), 539–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961000620966650
Yu, W., Payton, B., Sun, M., Jia, W., & Huang, G. (2022). Toward an integrated framework for misinformation and correction sharing: A systematic review across domains. New Media & Society, 25(8), 2241–2267. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221116569
Yuan, X., Schuchard, R. J., & Crooks, A. T. (2019). Examining emergent communities and social bots within the polarized online vaccination debate in Twitter. Social Media+ Society, 5(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305119865465
Zeng, E., Kohno, T., Roesner, F., & Allen, P. G. (2020). Bad news: Clickbait and deceptive ads on news and misinformation websites. Workshop on Technology and Consumer Protection (ConPro ’20). https://badads.cs.washington.edu/files/Zeng-ConPro2020-BadNews.pdf
Zenone, M. A., Snyder, J., & Crooks, V. (2021). Selling cannabidiol products in Canada: A framing analysis of advertising claims by online retailers. BMC Public Health, 21, Article 1285, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11282-x
Zhang, C. (2018, April). WeChatting American politics: Misinformation, polarization, and immigrant Chinese media. Columbia Journalism Review. https://www.cjr.org/tow_center_reports/wechatting-american-politics-misinformation-polarization-and-immigrant-chinese-media.php
Zhang, J., Featherstone, J. D., Calabrese, C., & Wojcieszak, M. (2021). Effects of fact-checking social media vaccine misinformation on attitudes toward vaccines. Preventive Medicine, 145, 106408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2020.106408
Zhang, Y., Chen, F., & Lukito, J. (2023). Network amplification of politicized information and misinformation about COVID-19 by conservative media and partisan influencers on Twitter. Political Communication, 40(1), 24–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2022.2113844
Zhao, S., Hu, S., Zhou, X., Song, S., Wang, Q., Zheng, H., Zhang, Y., & Hou, Z. (2023). The prevalence, features, influencing factors, and solutions for COVID-19 vaccine misinformation: Systematic review. JMIR Public Health and Surveillance, 9(1), e40201. https://doi.org/10.2196/40201
Zhong, M., Kshirsagar, M., Johnston, R., Dodhia, R., Glazer, T., Kim, A., Michael, D., Nair-Desai, S., Tsai, T. C., Friedhoff, S., & Ferres, J. M. L. (2022). Estimating vaccine-preventable COVID-19 deaths under counterfactual vaccination scenarios in the United States. medRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.05.19.22275310
Zhong, W., Bailard, C., Broniatowski, D., & Tromble, R. (2024). Proud Boys on telegram. Journal of Quantitative Description: Digital Media, 4, 1–47. https://doi.org/10.51685/jqd.2024.003
Zhou, J., Zhang, Y., Luo, Q., Parker, A. G., & De Choudhury, M. (2023). Synthetic lies: Understanding AI-generated misinformation and evaluating algorithmic and human solutions. In Proceedings of the 2023 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (p. 436). https://doi.org/10.1145/3544548.3581318
Zhou, T. (2020). Understanding users’ participation in online health communities: A social capital perspective. Information Development, 36(3), 403–413. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266666919864620
Zhou, Y., & Shen, L. (2022). Confirmation bias and the persistence of misinformation on climate change. Communication Research, 49(4), 500–523. https://doi.org/10.1177/00936502211028049
Zhu, Y., Qian, P., Su, F., & Xu, J. (2022). WeChat users’ debunking strategies in response to COVID-19 conspiracy theories: A mixed-methods study. Convergence, 28(4), 1060–1082. https://doi.org/10.1177/13548565221102594
Zimmermann, F., & Kohring, M. (2020). Mistrust, disinforming news, and vote choice: A panel survey on the origins and consequences of believing disinformation in the 2017 German Parliamentary Election. Political Communication, 37(2), 215–237. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2019.1686095
Zollo, F., Bessi, A., Vicario, M. D., Scala, A., Caldarelli, G., Shekhtman, L., Havlin, S., & Quattrociocchi, W. (2017). Debunking in a world of tribes. PLoS One, 12(7), e0181821. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181821
Zuckerman, D. (2003). Hype in health reporting: “Checkbook science” buys distortion of medical news. International Journal of Health Services, 33(2), 383–389. https://doi.org/10.2190/pmm9-dput-hn3y-lmjq