Carbon Removal at Airports (2024)
Chapter: Appendix C: Literature Review
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Suggested Citation:
"Appendix C: Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Removal at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/28458.
APPENDIX C
Literature Review
Literature Review
This appendix presents a comprehensive literature review based in part on ACRP projects and other related research and in part on feedback from industry interviews (see Table 15). In addition, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), in partnership with Colorado State University (CSU), conducted a comprehensive literature review for engineered CDR approaches, including DACS, BiCRS, enhanced mineralization, and ocean CDR (see Table 16).
ACRP Projects and Other Related Research Literature Review
Table 15. ACRP projects and other related research literature review.
| Resource Title Date, Focus, Tools Included |
Summary, Potential Overlap/Applicability with ACRP Project 02-100 |
|---|---|
| ACRP Report 38: Understanding Airspace, Objects, and Their Effects on Airports 2010 Airspace and airport safety No, guidelines |
Summary Overview of criteria (e.g., regulations, processes, standards) for airspace protection at and near airports. These planning processes are critical in ensuring airspace and airport safety. Potential Overlap/Applicability Provides insights into the regulations, standards, and rules that are integral to airspace safety. There are challenges with developing projects near airports that must be considered. The FAA’s “Obstruction Evaluation/Airport Airspace Analysis” is analyzed in ACRP Report 38 and may be useful when designing or planning a CDR project. |
| ACRP Report 56: Handbook for Considering Practical Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Strategies for Airports 2011 GHG reduction strategies for airports Yes, AirportGEAR |
Summary Manual for airports to identify and implement low-cost GHG reduction strategies. Fact sheets and AirportGEAR are tools to assist airports in GHG reduction efforts. Potential Overlap/Applicability Analyzed GHG reduction strategies for standard operations and for specific projects. This information will be critical to use along with carbon-removal plans. Implementing CDR must follow initial GHG reduction strategies as it targets legacy and hard-to-reduce emissions. |
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix C: Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Removal at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/28458.
| Resource Title Date, Focus, Tools Included |
Summary, Potential Overlap/Applicability with ACRP Project 02-100 |
|---|---|
| ACRP Report 57: The Carbon Market: A Primer for Airports 2011 Carbon market (opportunities for airports) No |
Summary Exploration of whether there are revenue opportunities generated by selling credits on carbon market. Also examined opportunities for airports attaining credits. Potential Overlap/Applicability Ultimately, the result is similar to findings for CDR: Hosting offset projects at airports is challenging because (1) the fact that there is not a federally mandated, comprehensive carbon trading system limits demand for overall credits, (2) the types of projects that can be practically implemented at airports are not often conducive to selling the credit associated with the activity, and (3), there are regulatory factors that limit the types of projects that can be implemented on airport property. There is a good discussion on revenue diversion/use agreements on pp 12–13. |
| ACRP Report 78: Airport Ground Support Equipment (GSE): Emission Reduction Strategies, Inventory, and Tutorial 2012 Emissions-reduction strategies for airport GSE Yes, tutorial and a tool |
Summary This guide discusses the need for more accurate data on the amount of GSE in use across airports. Potential Overlap/Applicability Analyzes the need for better data and discusses strategies to reduce emissions from GSE. Increasing demand at airports is ultimately having a negative impact on air quality, and there is a need for emissions-reduction efforts. |
| ACRP Report 108: Guidebook for Energy Facilities Compatibility with Airports and Airspace 2014 Energy projects and safety assessments No, guidelines |
Summary Potential airspace challenges with energy projects (e.g., solar photovoltaics, oil and gas drilling) and facilities on-site or near airports. Potential Overlap/Applicability Similar issues relating to airport and airspace safety may arise with carbon-removal projects. Potential physical hazards, such as increasing wildlife with nature-based CDR, must be analyzed the same way as traditional energy projects are as described in ACRP Report 108. There are many modeling tools available for energy projects and their potential impacts on surrounding areas that are not currently fully developed for CDR. |
| ACRP Report 141: Renewable Energy as an Airport Revenue Source 2015 Renewables as revenue No, guidelines |
Summary Examples of revenue and cost-savings projects from airport renewable energy. Potential Overlap/Applicability Guidelines for identifying and evaluating renewable opportunities and implementing and operating. Financial cost and performance of renewable projects at airports (range of sizes and locations). Describes challenges with renewables related to terrain, infrastructure, real estate, energy costs, public policy, regulatory and compliance requirements, tax credits, sponsor assurances, ownership, impacts to navigation and safety, security, staffing issues, and many others. Has decision-making flow charts to illustrate how airports identify the available renewable energy resource for their location and the appropriate business structure to meet their needs (Chapter 2). Section 2.6 provides an airspace safety review, grant assurances, ALP, FMV, and other considerations. Table 2-4 is an evaluation factors matrix. Simple flow decision matrix flow charts in Section 2.9.2 by renewable type could be a helpful model for toolkit (screening for each type of carbon-removal technology). Decision tree examples starting on p. 78. Section 4.4 on regulatory considerations is applicable. Section 4.4.2 on federal obligations would apply. Section 4.4.3 on obstruction evaluation could be useful for some technologies. Chapter 5 includes case studies, which could provide a template for type of information to include, for example, fast facts, scope, decision-making process, financials, and lessons learned. |
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix C: Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Removal at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/28458.
| Resource Title Date, Focus, Tools Included |
Summary, Potential Overlap/Applicability with ACRP Project 02-100 |
|---|---|
| ACRP Report 151: Developing a Business Case for Renewable Energy at Airports 2016 Renewables No, guidelines |
Summary Financial and nonfinancial benefits of renewable energy to the airport business. Potential Overlap/Applicability Has a decision matrix with criteria used to evaluate a renewable energy project. Presents business case in context of master planning/CIP process (integration into airport decision-making process). Business case examples from other industries (good case study outline of what to include in Chapter 7—mission, action, driver, planning/decision-making, lessons learned, etc.). Risk assessment—risks associated with options and with doing nothing. Fatal flaw analysis screening (Section 3.1)—airspace compatibility and natural resource availability. Chapter 5 on stakeholders could provide list of who needs to be coordinated with. |
| ACRP Research Report 197: Guidebook for Developing a Comprehensive Renewable Resources Strategy 2019 Renewable energy and planning No, guidelines |
Summary Provides information and strategies to guide airports in creating specific renewable resource plans. Potential Overlap/Applicability Provides airport planners and staff guidelines for developing long-term sustainability plans. Although ACRP Research Report 197 focuses on renewable resource plans, many of the processes may be relevant for carbon-removal plans as well. |
| ACRP Research Report 205: Revolving Funds for Sustainability Projects at Airports 2019 Funding No, guidelines and financial scenarios |
Summary Describes green revolving funds (GRFs) as potential source for airport sustainability projects. Potential Overlap/Applicability Provides insights into and guidelines for potential funding via GRFs for airports. These funds are applied to sustainability projects. GRFs must create savings, which are then allocated to paying off the loan or investment. |
|
ACRP Research Report 220: Guidebook for Developing a Zero- or Low-Emissions Roadmap at Airports 2021 Zero- or low-emissions strategies No, guidelines: https://acrpmicrogridtoolkit.xendee.com/ |
Summary Guide for developing a roadmap to pursue strategies that reduce or eliminate GHGs. Potential Overlap/Applicability Information on constructing a business case, attracting partners, etc., like what might be needed for carbon removal. Section on stakeholder engagement could be helpful. Chapter 4, on emissions-reduction strategies, could provide the checklist for low-hanging fruit on reduction side. Charts on pp. 48–49 are similar to discussions used to show reductions with removal in the tool. Section on funding—aircraft fuel taxes might be a source if reduction is considered a capital project, maybe GRFs, P3s, green leases mentioned in that section, too. Section on reporting might provide some insights, but hard to say since there really is no entity to validate removal yet. |
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix C: Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Removal at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/28458.
| Resource Title Date, Focus, Tools Included |
Summary, Potential Overlap/Applicability with ACRP Project 02-100 |
|---|---|
|
ACRP Research Report 228: Airport Microgrid Implementation Toolkit 2021 Microgrid evaluation Yes, toolkit: https://acrpmicrogridtoolkit.xendee.com/ |
Summary The toolkit provides insights into microgrid feasibility and evaluation criteria for airports. Microgrids improve airport resiliency from power outages. Potential Overlap/Applicability Like ACRP Project 02-100, this guide analyzes airports of all types and sizes and provides an assessment tool to determine whether a microgrid is feasible for an airport. Market mechanisms, including site and operational considerations as well as regulations, are included in this report. |
| ACRP Research Report 236: Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies 2022 Alternative aircraft technologies Yes, electronic toolkit |
Summary There is rapid development of electric, hybrid, and hydrogen technologies for aircrafts. This report focuses on the changes that airports will need to implement to accommodate new airplane technology. Potential Overlap/Applicability Analyzes the changes airports will need to undergo to accommodate the new low-carbon technology under development for aircrafts. Some of these changes will be operational and others will be to airport infrastructure. |
| ACRP Synthesis 19: Airport Revenue Diversification 2010 Ways to use land and facilities and diversify revenue streams as airport business models undergo change No, guidelines |
Summary To reduce vulnerabilities to risk, airports are diversifying revenue streams. Airports are seeking new ways to use land and facilities that they already own. One option is to install renewable energy on underused land. Potential Overlap/Applicability The business model for airports is changing and developing in ways that encourage them to diversify their revenue streams. Recommendations include, using underused land for different projects, particularly energy development and research projects. Land can be used for renewable energy (e.g., solar, wind, biofuel feedstocks). Similar analysis and land conversion strategies may be applicable when implementing a carbon-removal project. |
| ACRP Synthesis 21: Airport Energy Efficiency and Cost Reduction 2010 Low-cost energy efficiency improvements for airports No, guidelines |
Summary Documents low-cost and rapid return on investment energy efficiency projects that are being implemented at airports. Focusing on the importance of energy efficiency improvements and potential opportunities for renewable energy use. Potential Overlap/Applicability Providing guidelines to the audience/airports on environmental improvements. Integrating energy-efficient projects will be one of the first steps in improving an airport’s carbon footprint, implementing a carbon-removal project will be one of the final strategies once all reduction measures are complete. Cost and funding remain significant barriers to entry, particularly for small airports. |
| ACRP Synthesis 24: Strategies and Financing Opportunities for Airport Environmental Programs 2011 Summarize available funding opportunities for airports to achieve their environmental goals and targets No, guidelines |
Summary Synthesize funding opportunities for airports to accomplish their climate and environmental goals. The focus is on federal, state, and other government funding, with some private funding opportunities identified. Potential Overlap/Applicability Airports are becoming more responsible for their environmental impacts and many of the changes and strategies that must implemented are very costly. Identify climate-related funding opportunities on the national and state levels, and strategies for airports to advance their environmental sustainability. Analysis of state-by-state funding programs may clarify which states are more committed to climate funding agendas. |
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix C: Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Removal at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/28458.
| Resource Title Date, Focus, Tools Included |
Summary, Potential Overlap/Applicability with ACRP Project 02-100 |
|---|---|
| ACRP Synthesis 28: Investigating Safety Impacts of Energy Technologies on Airports and Aviation 2011 Potential impacts that energy technology may have on airport and aviation safety No, guidelines |
Summary Reviewing energy technologies that may have a negative impact on airport and aviation safety. The technology discussed includes (1) solar photovoltaic panels and farms, (2) concentrating solar power plants, (3) wind turbine generators and farms, and (4) traditional power plants. Potential Overlap/Applicability Compiles and synthesizes data and literature that are pertinent to advancing environmental technology. Summary of the types of technology, potential impacts, and examples of past and current projects. Cost is also a barrier to entry in implementing safe energy technology. Like carbon removal, location and available land is a critical consideration in assessing implementing new energy technology and analyzing the potential risks. |
| ACRP Synthesis 91/TCRP Synthesis 137: Microgrids and Their Application for Airports and Public Transit 2018 Potential use of microgrids for airport and public transit resiliency Evaluation and modeling tool recommendations are provided |
Summary Potential use and challenges with microgrids for airports and public transit. Microgrid installation is intended to increase critical infrastructure resiliency. Benefits, challenges, costs, revenue streams and ownership structures. Potential Overlap/Applicability Discusses the need for resiliency and the need to anticipate future regulations and climate mandates. Airports and public transit centers are beginning to set ambitious emissions-reduction goals, microgrids are one strategy to achieve climate targets. There are significant challenges and costs due to the high-power demand on-site, cyber risks and varying load types and sizes. This technology is more mature than carbon removal, but many gaps remain. |
| ACRP Synthesis 100: Airport Greenhouse Gas Reduction Efforts 2019 GHG reduction No, guidelines |
Summary Status of GHG reduction efforts since the release of ACRP Report 56:Handbook for Considering Practical Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Strategies at Airports in 2012. Potential Overlap/Applicability Mostly about methods to reduce GHG emissions and case studies of reduction measures. This one probably will not be too helpful unless we need to see how much certain type of reduction projects reduced GHGs. Glossary could be useful to pull from. |
| ACRP Synthesis 110: Airport Renewable Energy Projects Inventory and Case Examples 2020 Reduction (renewable energy) No, guidelines |
Summary Summary of renewable energy projects at airports across the United States. Potential Overlap/Applicability Document height/airspace challenges for projects on airport from renewables that could be applicable to carbon-removal technology. Discussion on importance of organizational champions and communication strategies. Opportunities around available land not used for other purposes and relevant project siting considerations. Good graphic on airport stakeholders for renewable projects, which would be similar to stakeholders for carbon-removal projects and general land-use planning and environmental and approval processes. |
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix C: Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Removal at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/28458.
| Resource Title Date, Focus, Tools Included |
Summary, Potential Overlap/Applicability with ACRP Project 02-100 |
|---|---|
| Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda 2019 Negative emission technologies No, guidelines |
Summary Assessment of new and improved negative-emissions technologies (NETs), aligned with IPCC targets. Expresses need for reductions to meet global climate targets. Significant research states that NETs will be deployed once GHG emissions are fully reduced. Potential Overlap/Applicability Six carbon-removal and sequestration pathways are analyzed: (1) coastal blue carbon, (2) terrestrial carbon removal and sequestration, (3) bioenergy with carbon capture and sequestration, (4) DAC, (5) carbon mineralization, and (6) geologic sequestration. Similar criteria are included in the analysis of each NET such as potential rates of sequestration, technological development, etc. |
| Getting to Neutral; Options for Negative Carbon Emissions in California 2020 GHG removal strategies No, guidelines |
Summary Assesses negative emissions pathways, specifically carbon-removal ones. Focus is on providing strategies for California to be carbon neutral by 2045. Potential Overlap/Applicability Analyzes nature-based carbon removal (e.g., land management) and technological. Detailed description of potential uses and impacts of different carbon-removal pathways such as, NETs, and biomass and geologic resources in California. The report suggests the need to implement these strategies in addition to implementing carbon-reduction strategies. Useful insights into carbon-removal costs. Land management is a critical strategy for California to achieve its climate goals. |
| Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Sixth Assessment Report 2021 Global climate change No, reports, analysis, and guidelines |
Summary Overview of historic, current, and future climate trends occurring globally. Potential Overlap/Applicability IPCC 6 discusses the issues and risks of increasing GHG emissions and their impact on the global climate. It is a call to action to rapidly reduce and remove GHGs. Applicable to increase the understanding of climate change and the need to reduce and remove harmful emissions as soon as possible. Provides robust scientific data and climate modeling. |
| Criteria for High Quality Carbon Dioxide Removal (Carbon Direct and Microsoft White Paper) 2022 Carbon removal No, guidelines |
Summary Criteria for determining the quality of a carbon-removal project. Potential Overlap/Applicability Screening criteria for each type of carbon-removal project. Would be applicable to airports in determining whether a project would provide additionality, durability, and guidance on how to determine some of those elements. Also includes discussion on environmental justice issues. |
| Microsoft Carbon Removal: Lessons from an Early Corporate Purchase 2021 Carbon removal; corporate No, lessons learned |
Summary Lessons learned from Microsoft purchasing early carbon-removal project credits, request for proposal process (RFP), ranking and complexity of carbon removal versus carbon offsets. Potential Overlap/Applicability Sample contracting language and RFP language included for procurement of a carbon-removal project (purchase). Less guidance on development relative to self-development. Red flags to review in terms of criteria. |
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix C: Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Removal at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/28458.
| Resource Title Date, Focus, Tools Included |
Summary, Potential Overlap/Applicability with ACRP Project 02-100 |
|---|---|
| Microsoft Carbon Removal: An Update with Lessons Learned in Our Second Year 2022 Carbon removal, corporate No, lessons learned |
Summary Second year of lessons learned from Microsoft purchasing carbon-removal projects. Potential Overlap/Applicability Includes carbon-market lessons learned in tracking and consistency. Additional information on purchase agreements and scaling of projects. Scalable options are likely already being piloted today. Soil and forestry removal techniques have challenges but offer short term climate value and additional co-benefits. Documented risks such as wildfire to purchased credits and importance of Kew 10 golden rules of restoration. Included weighted portfolio average cost per ton for projects selected and projects submitted. |
| FAA Solar Guide: Technical Guidance for Selected Solar Technologies on Airports 2010, 2018 2018—Overview and analysis of solar technology installation for airports including financing opportunities and FAA safety protocols 2018—No, guidelines |
Summary 2018—Provide guidance on solar projects and installations including solar technology, electric grid infrastructure, FAA safety, financing opportunities and motivations. Potential Overlap/Applicability 2018—There are many pros and cons to solar technology, particularly with safety concerns due to reflectivity and communication system issues. The FAA provides guidance on determining which technology is lowest risk and has the highest benefits. Funding resources, challenges and case studies are also included in this report. |
| Renewable Energy for Aviation: Practical Applications to Achieve Carbon Reductions and Cost Savings 2017 Background on energy use at airports and the steps in transitioning to renewable energy, including funding options and case studies. No, guidelines |
Summary Overview of why GHG emission reductions are critical and provides guidance on how to utilize and implement renewable energy. Potential Overlap/Applicability Opportunities for airports to reduce their GHG emissions by implementing renewable energy. This is a critical first step to take prior to planning a carbon-removal project. Funding opportunities included in the report may be applicable for carbon-removal projects. |
| Interim Policy, FAA Review of Solar Energy Power Projects on Federally Obligated Airports 2013 FAA solar PV installation regulations No, regulations |
Summary Policy for ensuring safe installation of solar PV and avoiding hazardous glare. Potential Overlap/Applicability Assessing glare and other hazards that may be an outcome of a CDR project is critical to ensure safe operations at airports. |
| Advisory Circular, 150/5190-4B, Airport Land Use Compatibility Planning 2022 Compatible land uses at airports No, guidelines |
Summary Identifies uses that may be allowed at an airport and within a runway protection zone (RPZ). Potential Overlap/Applicability Industrial and mining activities as well as agricultural activities are generally considered compatible at airports, but not necessarily within a RPZ (evaluation is needed to determine compatibility within an RPZ). Solar was formerly permitted within a RPZ with FAA approval but is no longer considered a compatible land use. Currently, compatible land uses within a RPZ that could be similar to a CDR project include farming (in the absence of wildlife concerns); airport service roads (if needed to access/maintain the CDR installation); and underground facilities. The most common airspace issues with a potential CDR project located on airport property likely be related to height issues, visual obstructions, and wildlife attractants. |
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix C: Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Removal at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/28458.
| Resource Title Date, Focus, Tools Included |
Summary, Potential Overlap/Applicability with ACRP Project 02-100 |
|---|---|
| FAA Report on the Sustainable Master Plan Pilot Program and Lessons Learned 2012 Summary of lessons learned on the FAA Sustainable Master Plan Pilot Program. No, guidelines |
Summary Airport experience developing sustainability plans that include renewable energy. Potential Overlap/Applicability Overlap relative to considering the environmental, operational, natural resources, and social considerations when considering a CDR project at an airport. Will be important to identify the sustainability features of a CDR project during the planning process and connect it to an airport’s sustainability goals. |
| FAA Advisory Circular, 150/5370-17: Airside Use of Heated Pavement Systems 2011 Design, construction, maintenance, and regulations required for heated pavement in aircraft operations areas No, guidelines |
Summary Guidance on implementing heated pavement systems on the airside. These systems may be electrically heated or hydronic pavement. Hydronic pavement that is sourced from geothermal waters is the most efficient but is site-specific. Potential Overlap/Applicability The FAA only recommends switching to heated pavement systems if the airport meets certain criteria and it makes sense financially due to high up-front costs. Similar to CDR, this report recommends robust site analysis, as heated pavement is not applicable at all airports. Both heated pavement systems and CDR will reduce environmental impacts and utilize either nature-based (e.g., geothermal water) or technological solutions. |
| FAA Interim Guidance on the Airport Sustainable Master Plan Pilot Program 2010 Preliminary guidance on airport sustainability planning and implementation of the sustainable master plan pilot program. No, guidelines |
Summary Guidelines for airports on the development of sustainability plans, including renewable energy. Potential Overlap/Applicability FAA sustainability plan guidelines include environmental resource assessments and carbon-reduction strategies. Carbon-removal analysis and strategies should be included in airport sustainability and master plans. |
|
DOE, NREL Renewable resource maps and data Resource maps for biomass, geothermal, hydrogen, marine hydrokinetic, solar, wind No, https://www.nrel.gov/gis/ |
Summary Data and resource maps that can be utilized to advance regional and local understandings of available natural resources (e.g., biomass, geothermal, hydrogen, wind, solar, and water) Potential Overlap/Applicability Airports interested in CDR and carbon reduction can use these tools and resources to gain insight into local natural resources. |
|
DOE, offered by ForgeSolar, Solar Glare Hazard AnalysisTool (SGHAT) 2015 Tool for solar glare and glint analysis to reduce hazardous risks associated with solar energy technology. https://www.forgesolar.com/ |
Summary Overview of glare and glint as they relate to solar technologies. Analysis of potential visual hazards of solar technology near or at airports. Provides guidance on submitting results to the FAA, which requires the use of SGHAT. Potential Overlap/Applicability Provides understanding of potential hazards and risks associated with renewable energy and low-carbon projects. Similar concerns and impacts of CDR must be rigorously assessed prior to implementation. |
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix C: Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Removal at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/28458.
| Resource Title Date, Focus, Tools Included |
Summary, Potential Overlap/Applicability with ACRP Project 02-100 |
|---|---|
|
DOE, managed by NC State University, Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency(DSIRE) Established 1995 Consolidated list of renewable energy and energy efficiency policies by state. https://www.dsireusa.org/ |
Summary Database, organized by state, of policies and incentives to implement renewable energy projects and advance energy efficiency. Potential Overlap/Applicability Useful information on state incentives and policies for energy efficiency and renewable energy projects. May be updated to provide incentives for carbon-removal projects. |
|
DOE, NREL PVWatts Updated frequently. Site-specific analysis of solar PV feasibility based on design and use. https://pvwatts.nrel.gov/ |
Summary Uses NREL National Solar Radiation Database to calculate energy production and costs for PV energy systems globally. Potential Overlap/Applicability Prior to implementing CDR projects airports must make strong efforts in reducing emissions. One strategy is to install solar PV. This calculator is useful to understand costs and efficiency based on location. |
|
DOE, NREL Levelized Cost of Energy Calculator Updated frequently. Calculates long-term costs of renewable energy technology https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/tech-lcoe.html |
Summary This tool will calculate total potential costs of renewable energy technology. The calculations include initial capital costs, operations and maintenance, performance, and fuel cost. The total cost is expressed in cents per kWh. Potential Overlap/Applicability To date, there is no calculator or tool like the LCOE for CDR but something similar would be useful as more technology and information regarding removal projects becomes available. Utilizing this calculator for determining renewable energy technology and cost analysis to understand feasibility for implementing such technology to reduce GHG emissions would be useful. As previously mentioned, it is critical to first reduce GHG emission and then investigate carbon-removal strategies. |
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix C: Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Removal at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/28458.
CDR—Colorado State University and National Renewable Energy Laboratory-Led Literature Review
Table 16. Colorado State University (CSU) and National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)-led CDR literature review.
| CDR Pathway | Source Title, Authors, and Link to Citation | Main Takeaways |
|---|---|---|
| Natural-Based (CSU-Led) | ||
| Soil |
Soil C Sequestration as a Biological Negative Emission Strategy (Paustian et al. 2019) https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fclim.2019.00008/full |
Review of recent published estimates of global soil carbon-sequestration potential, representing the biophysical potential for managed cropland and grassland systems to store additional carbon, assuming widespread (near-complete) adoption of best management practices: 4–5 GtCO2/year as an upper limit for global biophysical potential; with frontier technologies, the global estimate might grow to 8 GtCO2/year. |
| Mineralization |
Engineered Carbon Mineralization in Ultramafic Rocks for CO2 Removal from Air: Review and New Insights (Keleman et al. 2020) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009254120301674 |
Different approaches to mineralization: surface CDR can be achieved by exposing reactive material (rock or mine tailings) with air, but there is a large land requirement (can be addressed with a couple of innovations); in situ CDR (uses ultramafic and mafic geological formations for permanent, solid storage) depends on characterizing the reservoirs. There is also an opportunity to combine in situ and surface processes. |
|
An Overview of the Status and Challenges of CO2 Storage in Minerals and Geological Formations (Keleman et al. 2010) https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fclim.2019.00009/full |
Overview of the advantages, drawbacks, costs, and CO2 storage potential of each mineralization approach, the current and future projects in this domain, and potential sequestration options in geologic formations around the world. Ex situ dissolution rates vary across different ultramafic and mafic geologies. In situ, CO2 trapping mechanisms are highly site-specific and depend on type of rock (carbonatitic and siliciclastic rocks or mafic and ultramafic rocks that can react much faster with CO2 to form carbonates). There are also considerations regarding safety of in situ mineralization and monitoring techniques to ensure CO2 is fully mineralized. | |
| Soil, Biochar |
Soil Carbon Sequestration and Biochar as Negative Emission Technologies (Smith 2016) https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.13178 |
Soil carbon sequestration with biochar can yield 0.7 GtCeq Year-1 with lower impact on land, water use, nutrients, albedo, energy requirement and cost. Biochar could be implemented in combination with BECCS and applied to all managed land without changing its current use (no competition with existing food/fuel/fiber production). In some instances, biochar can help increase plant production and help drive additional soil carbon storage. |
| Forests |
Improved Forest Management as a Natural Climate Solution: A Review (Kaarakka et al. 2021) https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2688-8319.12090 |
A review of improved forest management approaches that can enhance forest carbon storage and best management practices and silvicultural systems, including a discussion of current challenges and opportunities in including soil carbon in forest carbon-management guidelines and frameworks. |
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix C: Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Removal at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/28458.
| Biochar |
Review of the Stability of Biochar in Soils: Predictability of O:C Molar Ratios (Spokas 2010) https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.4155/cmt.10.32 |
Reviews literature that generally supports the smaller the oxygen to carbon (O:C) ratio, the longer residence time, although not necessarily linearly. See the sixth row (0.099 O:C ratio = 110,000 years) and the fourth row (O:C ratio 0.01 = 1400 years), obviously massive variability. |
|
Physical Disintegration of Biochar: An Overlooked Process (Spokas et al. 2014) https://eprints.nwisrl.ars.usda.gov/id/eprint/1548/1/1502.pdf |
Discusses physical disintegration and mass loss up to 47 percent for high nitrogen chars. | |
|
Qualitative Analysis of Volatile Organic Compounds on Biochar (Spokas et al. 2011) https://pubag.nal.usda.gov/download/59583/pdf |
Discusses volatile organic matter, which again relates to stability. | |
|
Characterization of Biochars to Evaluate Recalcitrance and Agronomic Performance (Enders et al. 2012) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960852412004403 |
Tests multiple chars. | |
|
Biochar Carbon Stability Test Method: An Assessment of Methods to Determine Biochar Carbon Stability (Budai et al. 2013) https://biochar-international.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/IBI_Report_Biochar_Stability_Test_Method_Final.pdf |
Assessment of various methods to determine biochar carbon stability. | |
|
Biochar Persistence, Priming and Microbial Responses to Pyrolysis Temperature Series (Budai et al. 2016) https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00374-016-1116-6 |
Research on how the production of biochar affects its properties (slow pyrolysis and hydrothermal and flash carbonization). |
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix C: Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Removal at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/28458.
| CDR Pathway | Source Title, Authors, and Link to Citation | Main Takeaways |
|---|---|---|
| Engineered-Based (NREL-Led) | ||
| Direct Air Capture and Storage (DACS) |
Direct Air Capture White Paper (Pues 2022) https://techstartups.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/20220401d_f4cr_solutions-series_whitepaper_DACindd.pdf |
High-level overview of DAC technologies. Discuss DAC’s capacity to achieve scalable, financeable, durable, and equitable outcomes. Provide suggestions for its safe implementation. |
|
Direct Air Capture of Carbon Dioxide: ICEF Roadmap 2018 (Sandalow et al. 2018) https://www.globalccsinstitute.com/resources/publications-reports-research/icef-roadmap-2018-direct-air-capture-of-carbon-dioxide/ |
This roadmap explores the potential for DAC of CO2 to contribute to climate mitigation: (1) the need for CDR and the range of CDR approaches available, (2) available DAC technologies, (3) the advantages of DAC, (4) the challenges facing DAC, (5) R&D needed moving forward, (6) policy related to DAC, (7) recommendations and provide feedstock for commercial processes. | |
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A Process for Capturing CO2 from the Atmosphere (Keith et al. 2018) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2542435118302253 |
Carbon Engineering’s DAC process. Depending on financial assumptions, energy costs, and the specific choice of inputs and outputs, the levelized cost per ton CO2 captured from the atmosphere ranges from 94 to 232 $/t-CO2. | |
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Energy and Material Balance of CO2 Capture from Ambient Air (Zeman 2007) https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/es070874m |
Energy and material calculations for an industrial technology that captures CO2 directly from ambient air. First, a wet scrubbing absorbs CO2 into a sodium hydroxide solution. The resultant carbonate is transferred from sodium ions to calcium ions via causticization. The captured CO2 is released from the calcium carbonate through thermal calcination in a modified kiln. The energy consumption is calculated as 350 kJ/mol of CO2 captured. | |
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Designing Learning Curves for Carbon Capture Based on Chemical Absorption According to the Minimum Work of Separation (Rochedo et al. 2013) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261913001931 |
Estimation for the minimum energy required to capture the CO2 emitted by coal-fired thermal power plants. Develop the learning model by evaluating solvents and processes with the best fit for the post-combustion chemical absorption of CO2. | |
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix C: Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Removal at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/28458.
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A Review of Direct Air Capture (DAC): Scaling up Commercial Technologies and Innovating for the Future (McQueen et al. 2021) https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2516-1083/abf1ce/meta |
Compare two commercial DAC processes: Carbon Engineering and Climeworks. Discuss the properties of solvents and sorbents, including mass transfer, heat transfer, and chemical kinetics, as well as how these properties influence the design and cost of the DAC process. | |
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The Thermodynamics of Direct Air Capture of Carbon Dioxide (Lackner 2013) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544212006901 |
An analysis of thermodynamic constraints shows that the low concentration of CO2 in ambient air does not pose stringent limits on air-capture economics. Whether the system is driven by water evaporation or by low-grade heat, the cost of the thermodynamically-required energy can be as small as $1 to $2 per metric ton of CO2. | |
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Emergency Deployment of Direct Air Capture as a Response to the Climate Crisis (Hanna et al. 2021) https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-20437-0 |
Model the deployment of DAC. An emergency DAC program, with investment of 1.2–1.9% of global gross domestic product annually, removes 2.2–2.3 GtCO2 Year-1 in 2050, 13–20 GtCO2 Year-1 in 2075, and 570–840 GtCO2 cumulatively over 2025–2100. | |
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Unrealistic Energy and Materials Requirement for Direct Air Capture in Deep Mitigation Pathways (Chatterjee et al. 2020) https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-17203-7 |
Energy and materials calculation for DAC. The analysis shows DAC is an unsuitable option to capture 30 Gt-CO2/year, most likely due to enormous amounts of materials (16.3–27.8 Gt of NH3 and 3.3–5.6 Gt of EO) and energy needed (20.4–35.1 TW-year, 110–191% TGES if NH3 production from only natural gas is being considered). | |
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Direct Air Capture of CO2 with Chemicals: A Technology Assessment for the APS Panel on Public Affairs (Socolow et al. 2011) https://www.aps.org/publications/reports/direct-air-capture-co2 |
This report explores DAC of CO2 from the atmosphere with chemicals. DAC is not currently an economically viable approach to mitigating climate change. Any commercially interesting DAC system would require significantly lower avoided CO2 costs, and thus would likely have a design very different from the benchmark system investigated in this report. This report identifies some of the key issues that need to be addressed in alternative designs. | |
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A Parametric Study of the Techno-Economics of Direct CO2 Air Capture Systems Using Solid Adsorbents (Sinha et al. 2019) https://aiche.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/aic.16607 |
A TEA study for DAC through solid adsorbent. The modeling results for the mid-range estimate indicate that the cost of DAC lies between $86 and 221 per t-CO2, the thermal energy range varies from 3.4 to 4.8 GJ per t-CO2 captured and the electrical energy range varies from 0.55 to 1.12 GJ per t-CO2 captured. |
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix C: Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Removal at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/28458.
| CDR Pathway | Source Title, Authors, and Link to Citation | Main Takeaways |
|---|---|---|
| Biomass Carbon Removal and Storage (BiCRS) |
Biomass Carbon Removal and Storage (BiCRS) Roadmap (Sandalow et al. 2021) https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1763937 |
This roadmap introduces a new term: BiCRS. The term describes a range of processes that use plants and algae to remove CO2 from the atmosphere and store that CO2 underground or in long-lived products. |
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The Limits to Global-Warming Mitigation by Terrestrial Carbon Removal (Boysen et al. 2017) https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2016EF000469 |
Terrestrial CDR (tCDR) through managed biomass growth and subsequent CCS is required to achieve environmental goals. This study calculates the extent of tCDR required to repair delayed or insufficient emissions-reduction policies unable to prevent global mean temperature rise of 2.5°C or even 4.5°C above preindustrial level. This study also reanalyzes the requirements for achieving the 160–190 GtC tCDR that would complement strong mitigation action (RCP2.6) to avoid 2°C overshoot anytime. | |
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Biomass and Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage: A Review (Kemper 2015) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1750583615002650 |
Overview of biomass with carbon capture and storage (Bio-CCS or BECCS) at the systems level. It summarizes the relevant information from the recent 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and describes the progress made since earlier reports. | |
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Assessment of Carbon Dioxide Removal Potential via BECCS in a Carbon-Neutral Europe (Rosa et al. 2021) https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2021/ee/d1ee00642h |
This study evaluates biogenic CDR potential in Europe. Europe has enough biomass resources to remove 5% of its 2018 GHG emissions, or about 200 million tons CO2 per year. However, if more CDR is required, European countries will likely need to resort to other CDR technologies or import biomass from other countries to reach net-zero emissions. | |
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Transport Cost for Carbon Removal Projects With Biomass and CO2 Storage (Stolaroff et al. 2021) https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/energy-research/articles/10.3389/fenrg.2021.639943/full |
This study assesses the cost of transport for biomass conversion projects with CCS using publicly available cost data for trucking, rail, and CO2 pipelines in the United States. | |
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Life Cycle Assessment of Carbon Dioxide Removal Technologies: A Critical Review (Terlouw et al. 2021) https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2021/ee/d0ee03757e |
Critical review on conducted life-cycle assessments of a comprehensive set of CDR technologies: afforestation and reforestation, biochar, soil carbon sequestration, enhanced weathering, ocean fertilization, BECCS, and DACS. |
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix C: Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Removal at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/28458.
| Enhanced Mineralization |
Carbon Mineralization Roadmap (Sandalow et al. 2021) https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1829577 |
Carbon mineralization roadmap. The roadmap estimates that, with strong and sustained policy support from governments around the world, carbon mineralization processes could remove 1 GtCO2 from the atmosphere per year by 2035 and 10 GtCO2 per year by 2050. More research is needed to test this hypothesis and define conditions under which carbon mineralization could achieve this potential. |
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CO2 Mitigation Potential of Mineral Carbonation with Industrial Alkalinity Sources in the United States (Kirchofer et al. 2013) https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/es4003982 |
This study investigates the availability of industrial alkalinity sources to determine their potential for the simultaneous capture and sequestration of CO2 from point-source emissions in the United States. Industrial alkalinity sources investigated include fly ash, cement kiln dust, and iron and steel slag. | |
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Carbon Mineralization Pathways for Carbon Capture, Storage and Utilization (Gadikota 2021) https://www.nature.com/articles/s42004-021-00461-x |
Discussion on the advances in and challenges of carbon mineralization; conclusion indicates that tuning the chemical interactions involved will allow the unlocking of its potential for advancing low-carbon energy and resource conversion pathways. | |
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Engineered Carbon Mineralization in Ultramafic Rocks for CO2 Removal from Air: Review and New Insights (Kelemen et al. 2020) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009254120301674 |
Review for CDR from air combined with permanent solid storage can be accomplished via carbon mineralization in ultramafic rocks in at least four ways: (1) surficial CDR, (2) in situ CDR, (3) combined partial enrichment of CO2 using DAC with synthetic sorbents plus surficial carbon mineralization, and (4) in situ carbon mineralization. | |
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Impact of Alkalinity Sources on the Life-Cycle Energy Efficiency of Mineral Carbonation Technologies (Kirchofer et al. 2012) https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2012/ee/c2ee22180b |
The total CO2 storage potential for the alkalinity sources considered in the United States ranges from 1.8% to 23.7% of U.S. CO2 emissions, depending on the assumed availability of natural alkalinity sources and efficiency of the mineral carbonation processes. | |
| Ocean CDR |
A Research Strategy for Ocean-based Carbon Dioxide Removal and Sequestration (National Academies of Sciences 2022) https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26278/a-research-strategy-for-ocean-based-carbon-dioxide-removal-and-sequestration |
Review for ocean CDR, including (1) nutrient fertilization, (2) artificial upwelling and downwelling, (3) seaweed cultivation, (4) recovery of ocean and coastal ecosystems, (5) ocean alkalinity enhancement, and (6) electrochemical approaches. |
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix C: Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Removal at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/28458.
| CDR Pathway | Source Title, Authors, and Link to Citation | Main Takeaways |
|---|---|---|
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Public Perceptions of Ocean-Based Carbon Dioxide Removal: The Nature-Engineering Divide? (Bertram et al. 2020) https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/climate/articles/10.3389/fclim.2020.594194/full |
This study outlines past work on the public perceptions and acceptability of ocean-based CDR among laypersons covering the main developments over the past 15 years. Compare and synthesize insights from two distinct strands of literature—one on climate engineering approaches and the other on coastal ecosystem management or blue-carbon approaches. | |
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Irreversibility of Marine Climate Change Impacts Under Carbon Dioxide Removal (Li et al. 2020) https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2020GL088507 |
This study investigates to what extent overshoot and subsequent recovery of a given cumulative CO2 emissions level by CDR leaves a legacy in the marine environment using an Earth system model. Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) 2.6 and its extension to year 2300 as the reference scenario and design a set of cumulative emissions and temperature overshoot scenarios based on other RCP. Results suggest that the overshoot and subsequent return to a reference cumulative emissions level would leave substantial impacts on the marine environment. | |
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Strong Time Dependence of Ocean Acidification Mitigation by Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Removal (Hofmann et al. 2019) https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-13586-4 |
Stringent mitigation strategies consistent with the 1.5 C scenario could provoke a critical difference for the ocean’s carbon cycle and calcium carbonate saturation states. Favorable conditions for calcifying organisms like tropical corals and polar pteropods can be maintained only if CO2 emissions fall rapidly between 2025 and 2050, potentially requiring an early deployment of CO2 removal techniques in addition to drastic emissions reduction. | |
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Assessing the Sequestration Time Scales of Some Ocean-Based Carbon Dioxide Reduction Strategies (Siegel et al. 2021) https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ac0be0/meta |
Ocean CDR strategies that increase upper ocean ecosystem productivity with the goal of exporting more carbon to depth will have mainly a short-term influence on atmospheric CO2 levels because approximately 70 percent will be transported back to the surface ocean within 50 years. The results presented will help plan appropriate ocean CDR strategies that can help limit climate damage caused by fossil fuel CO2 emissions. | |
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Life Cycle Assessment of Ocean Liming for Carbon Dioxide Removal from the Atmosphere (Foteinis et al. 2022) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652622028955 |
Clean and energy-efficient kilns (e.g., solar calciners) and the use of renewable energy optimize the system’s environmental performance (total carbon and environmental footprint, 1,031 kgCO2e and 15.1 Pt per ton of lime spread in the ocean, respectively). |
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