TCRP OVERSIGHT AND PROJECT SELECTION COMMISSION^*

CHAIR

Jameson Auten

Lane Transit District

VICE CHAIR

Ryan I. Daniel

St. Cloud Metro Bus

SECRETARY/TREASURER

Brad Miller

Pinellas Suncoast Transit Authority (PSTA)

IMMEDIATE PAST CHAIR

Jeanne Krieg

Eastern Contra Costa Transit Authority (retired)

MEMBERS

Rashidi Barnes

Eastern Contra Costa Transit Authority

Andrea Burnside

Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority

Julia Castillo

Heart of Iowa Transit Authority

April Chan

San Mateo County Transit District

Desmond Cole

Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority

David Harris

New Mexico Department of Transportation

Tim Healy

Sound Transit

Brendon Hemily

Hemily and Associates

Vince Huerta

East Texas Council of Governments

Debra Johnson

Denver Regional Transportation District

Joseph Leader

HDR

Benjamin Limmer

Connecticut Department of Transportation

Bacarra Mauldin

Edward Kizeto, LLC

Jessica Mefford-Miller

Valley Metro

Raymond Melleady

USSC Group

Meghan Merritt

Movitas Mobility

Karen Philbrick

Mineta Transportation Institute, San Jose State University

Elizabeth Presutti

Charlotte Area Transit System

Charles Reeves

Pittsburgh Regional Transit

Catherine Rinaldi

Consultant

Jeffrey Rosenberg

Amalgamated Transit Union

Judy Shanley

Easterseals

Frank White, III

Kansas City Area Transportation Authority

EX OFFICIO MEMBERS

Tariq Bokhari

FTA

Victoria Sheehan

TRB

Gloria Shepherd

FHWA

Paul P. Skoutelas

APTA

Jim Tymon

AASHTO

TOPS COMMISSION STAFF ADVISOR

Arthur L. Guzzetti

APTA

SECRETARY

Monique R. Evans

TRB

_________________________

^* Membership as of August 2025.

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2025 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE*

OFFICERS

CHAIR: Leslie S. Richards, Professor of Practice, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia

VICE CHAIR: Joel M. Jundt, Secretary of Transportation, South Dakota Department of Transportation, Pierre

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR: Victoria Sheehan, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC

MEMBERS

James F. Albaugh, President and CEO, The Boeing Company (retired), Scottsdale, AZ

Carlos M. Braceras, Executive Director, Utah Department of Transportation, Salt Lake City

Douglas C. Ceva, Vice President, Customer Lead Solutions, Prologis, Inc., Jupiter, FL

Nancy Daubenberger, Commissioner of Transportation, Minnesota Department of Transportation, St. Paul

Marie Therese Dominguez, Commissioner, New York State Department of Transportation, Albany

Garrett Eucalitto, Commissioner, Connecticut Department of Transportation, Newington

Andrew Fremier, Executive Director, Metropolitan Transportation Commission, San Francisco, CA

Martha Grabowski, Professor Emerita, Information Systems, Le Moyne College, Madden College of Business & Economics, Cazenovia, NY

Randell Iwasaki, President and CEO, Iwasaki Consulting Services, Walnut Creek, CA

Carol A. Lewis, Professor, Transportation Studies, Texas Southern University, Houston

Scott C. Marler, Director, Iowa Department of Transportation, Ames

Ricardo Martinez, Adjunct Professor of Emergency Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Decatur, GA

Russell McMurry, Commissioner, Georgia Department of Transportation, Atlanta

Craig E. Philip, Research Professor and Director, VECTOR, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN

Steward T.A. Pickett, Distinguished Senior Scientist, Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY

Susan A. Shaheen, Professor and Co-Director, Transportation Sustainability Research Center, University of California, Berkeley

Marc Williams, Executive Director, Texas Department of Transportation, Austin

EX OFFICIO MEMBERS

Bryan Bedford, Administrator, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, DC

Michael R. Berube, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Sustainable Transportation, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC

Tariq Bokhari, Acting Administrator, Federal Transit Administration, Washington, DC

Steven G. Bradbury, Deputy Secretary, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC

Steven Cliff, Executive Officer, California Air Resources Board, Sacramento

Drew Feeley, Acting Administrator, Federal Railroad Administration, Washington, DC

LeRoy Gishi, Chief, Division of Transportation, Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior, Germantown, MD

Firas Ibrahim, Director, Office of Research, Development, and Technology, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Research and Technology (OST-R), Washington, DC

Jason Kelly, Deputy Commanding General for Civil Works and Emergency Operations, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC

Sandra Knight, President, WaterWonks, LLC, Washington, DC

Ben Kochman, Acting Administrator, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, Washington, DC

Niloo Parvinashtiani, Engineer, Mobility Consultant Solutions, Iteris Inc., Fairfax, VA, and Chair, TRB Young Members Coordinating Council

Gloria Shepherd, Acting Deputy Administrator, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC

Karl Simon, Director, Transportation and Climate Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC

Paul P. Skoutelas, President and CEO, American Public Transportation Association, Washington, DC

Jim Tymon, Executive Director, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC

Sang Yi, Acting Administrator, U.S. Maritime Administration, Washington, DC

_________________________

^* Membership as of August 2025.

TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM

TCRP SYNTHESIS 183

Operational and Service Factors When Integrating or Consolidating ADA Paratransit and On-Demand Services

A Synthesis of Transit Practice

Todd Hansen

Will Rodman

Mahrokh Amiri

Suzie Edrington

Jarrod Butts

Texas A&M Transportation Institute

College Station, TX

Subject Areas

Public Transportation

Research sponsored by the Federal Transit Administration in cooperation with the American Public Transportation Association

2025

TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM

The nationʼs growth and the need to meet mobility, environmental, and energy objectives place demands on public transit systems. Current systems, some of which are old and in need of upgrading, must expand service area, increase service frequency, and improve efficiency to serve these demands. Research is necessary to solve operating problems, adapt appropriate new technologies from other industries, and introduce innovations into the transit industry. The Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) serves as one of the principal means by which the transit industry can develop innovative near-term solutions to meet demands placed on it.

The need for TCRP was originally identified in TRB Special Report 213—Research for Public Transit: New Directions, published in 1987 and based on a study sponsored by the Urban Mass Transportation Administration—now the Federal Transit Administration (FTA). A report by the American Public Transportation Association (APTA), Transportation 2000, also recognized the need for local, problem-solving research. TCRP, modeled after the successful National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), undertakes research and other technical activities in response to the needs of transit service providers. The scope of TCRP includes various transit research fields including planning, service configuration, equipment, facilities, operations, human resources, maintenance, policy, and administrative practices.

TCRP was established under FTA sponsorship in July 1992. Proposed by the U.S. Department of Transportation, TCRP was authorized as part of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA). On May 13, 1992, a memorandum agreement outlining TCRP operating procedures was executed by the three cooperating organizations: FTA; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, acting through the Transportation Research Board (TRB); and APTA. APTA is responsible for forming the independent governing board, designated as the TCRP Oversight and Project Selection (TOPS) Commission.

Research problem statements for TCRP are solicited periodically but may be submitted to TRB by anyone at any time. It is the responsibility of the TOPS Commission to formulate the research program by identifying the highest priority projects. As part of the evaluation, the TOPS Commission defines funding levels and expected products.

Once selected, each project is assigned to an expert panel appointed by TRB. The panels prepare project statements (requests for proposals), select contractors, and provide technical guidance and counsel throughout the life of the project. The process for developing research problem statements and selecting research agencies has been used by TRB in managing cooperative research programs since 1962. As in other TRB activities, TCRP project panels serve voluntarily without compensation.

Because research cannot have the desired effect if products fail to reach the intended audience, special emphasis is placed on disseminating TCRP results to the intended users of the research: transit agencies, service providers, and suppliers. TRB provides a series of research reports, syntheses of transit practice, and other supporting material developed by TCRP research. APTA will arrange for workshops, training aids, field visits, and other activities to ensure that results are implemented by urban and rural transit industry practitioners.

TCRP provides a forum where transit agencies can cooperatively address common operational problems. TCRP results support and complement other ongoing transit research and training programs.

TCRP SYNTHESIS 183

Project J-07, Topic SB-42
ISSN 1073-4880
ISBN 978-0-309-99475-0

© 2025 by the National Academy of Sciences. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and the graphical logo are trademarks of the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

COPYRIGHT INFORMATION

Authors herein are responsible for the originality and accuracy of their materials and for obtaining written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously published or copyrighted material used herein.

The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) grants permission to reproduce written material in this publication for classroom and non-commercial purposes subject to the rights of any third parties and appropriate attribution. Permission is given with the understanding that none of the material will be used to imply NAS, TRB, AASHTO, APTA, FAA, FHWA, FTA, GHSA, or NHTSA endorsement of a particular product, method, or practice. For other uses of the written material, users must request permission from the National Academies Press.

NOTICE

The report was reviewed by the technical panel and accepted for publication according to procedures established and overseen by the Transportation Research Board and approved by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Transportation, FTA, in the interest of information exchange. The U.S. government assumes no liability for the contents or use thereof. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed or implied in this document are those of the researchers who performed the research and are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; or the program sponsors.

The Transportation Research Board does not develop, issue, or publish standards or specifications. The Transportation Research Board manages applied research projects which provide the scientific foundation that may be used by Transportation Research Board sponsors, industry associations, or other organizations as the basis for revised practices, procedures, or specifications.

The Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; and the sponsors of the Transit Cooperative Research Program do not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturersʼ names or logos appear herein solely because they are considered essential to the object of the report.

Published reports of the

TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM

are available from

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and can be ordered through the Internet by going to

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The National Academy of Sciences was established in 1863 by an Act of Congress, signed by President Lincoln, as a private, nongovernmental institution to advise the nation on issues related to science and technology. Members are elected by their peers for outstanding contributions to research. Dr. Marcia McNutt is president.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964 under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences to bring the practices of engineering to advising the nation. Members are elected by their peers for extraordinary contributions to engineering. Dr. Tsu-Jae Liu is president.

The National Academy of Medicine (formerly the Institute of Medicine) was established in 1970 under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences to advise the nation on medical and health issues. Members are elected by their peers for distinguished contributions to medicine and health. Dr. Victor J. Dzau is president.

The three Academies work together as the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine to provide independent, objective analysis and advice to the nation and conduct other activities to solve complex problems and inform public policy decisions. The National Academies also encourage education and research, recognize outstanding contributions to knowledge, and increase public understanding in matters of science, engineering, and medicine.

Learn more about the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine at www.nationalacademies.org.

The Transportation Research Board is one of seven major program divisions of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. The mission of the Transportation Research Board is to mobilize expertise, experience, and knowledge to anticipate and solve complex transportation-related challenges. The Boardʼs varied activities annually engage about 8,500 engineers, scientists, and other transportation researchers and practitioners from the public and private sectors and academia, all of whom contribute their expertise in the public interest. The program is supported by state departments of transportation, federal agencies including the component administrations of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and other organizations and individuals interested in the development of transportation.

Learn more about the Transportation Research Board at www.TRB.org.

COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS

CRP STAFF FOR TCRP SYNTHESIS 183

Monique R. Evans, Director, Cooperative Research Programs

Waseem Dekelbab, Deputy Director, Cooperative Research Programs

Gwen Chisholm Smith, Manager, Transit Cooperative Research Program

Jamaal Schoby, Senior Program Officer

Oulimata Khoule, Senior Program Assistant

Natalie Barnes, Director of Publications

Heather DiAngelis, Associate Director of Publications

TCRP PROJECT J-07 PANEL

Rachel Dungca, Metro Transit, Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minneapolis, MN (Chair)

Jameson Auten, Lane Transit District, Eugene, OR

Mallory Avis, Battle Creek Transit, Battle Creek, MI

Raymond Chan, Arcadis, Kettering, OH

Roderick B. Diaz, Southern California Regional Rail Authority, Los Angeles, CA

Mark Donaghy, Petersburg, KY

Christian T. Kent, Christian T. Kent, Transit Management Consulting, LLC, Virginia Beach, VA

Beverly Neff, San Diego Metropolitan Transit System, San Diego, CA

Ed F. Watt, WattADR, Rockaway Park, NY

David C. Wilcock, VHB, Boston, MA

Robert Earl Williams III, Ann Arbor Transportation Authority, Ann Arbor, MI

Tara Echols, FTA Liaison

Arthur L. Guzzetti, APTA Liaison

TOPIC SB-42 PANEL

Julia Castillo, Heart of Iowa Regional Transit Agency, Urbandale, IA

Eileen Collins Turvey, Tri-County Metropolitan Transportation District, Portland, OR

Pete Comer, Kansas City Area Transportation Authority, Kansas City, MO

Christian T. Kent, Christian T. Kent, Transit Management Consulting, LLC, Virginia Beach, VA

Sara Sanford, CapMetro, Austin, TX

Marc Anthony Soto, Transdev North America, San Francisco, CA

Lisa Womack, Johnson County, Olathe, KS

Marilyn Yokley, WeGO Public Transit, Nashville, TN

Michelle Bloomer, FTA Liaison

ABOUT THE TCRP SYNTHESIS PROGRAM

Transit administrators, engineers, and researchers often face problems for which information already exists, either in documented form or as undocumented experience and practice. This information may be fragmented, scattered, and unevaluated. As a consequence, full knowledge of what has been learned about a problem may not be brought to bear on its solution. Costly research findings may go unused, valuable experience may be overlooked, and due consideration may not be given to recommended practices for solving or alleviating the problem.

There is information on nearly every subject of concern to the transit industry. Much of it derives from research or from the work of practitioners faced with problems in their day-to-day work. To provide a systematic means for assembling and evaluating such useful information and to make it available to the entire transit community, the Transit Cooperative Research Program Oversight and Project Selection (TOPS) Commission authorized the Transportation Research Board to undertake a continuing study. This study, TCRP Project J-07, “Synthesis of Information Related to Transit Practices,” searches out and synthesizes useful knowledge from all available sources and prepares concise, documented reports on specific topics. Reports from this endeavor constitute a TCRP report series, Synthesis of Transit Practice.

This synthesis series reports on current knowledge and practice, in a compact format, without the detailed directions usually found in handbooks or design manuals. Each report in the series provides a compendium of the best knowledge available on those measures found to be the most successful in resolving specific problems.

FOREWORD

By Jamaal Schoby
Staff Officer
Transportation Research Board

As public transit agencies continue to evolve in response to changing community needs, the integration of demand response transportation (DRT) services has emerged as one opportunity to expand access for customers. Among the most promising developments is the commingling of Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) complementary paratransit trips with general public trips using on-demand microtransit platforms. This novel approach offers the potential for greater efficiency, improved service delivery, and optimized use of public resources. However, commingling of services requires a thoughtful balance of compliance, customer expectations, and operational realities.

The synthesis documents the current state of the practice in integrating or consolidating ADA paratransit and general public transit with on-demand microtransit service. Drawing from a literature review, a national survey of 26 transit providers, and in-depth case examples of five transit providers, the study presents an understanding of the service models, software platforms, policies, and practices that make integration possible. This report concludes with identifying key findings, barriers and challenges, and areas for future research to inform and support the continued development of commingled transit services.

The study was led by Principal Investigator Todd Hansen with the Texas A&M Transportation Institute. Guided by a panel of subject matter experts, the team conducted the literature review, collected and synthesized data, and prepared the report. This synthesis offers timely insights into how transit agencies across the country are designing, managing, and refining commingled services. By capturing the current state of practice, this report contributes to a growing body of knowledge that will inform not only todayʼs service planning decisions, but also tomorrowʼs innovations in inclusive, flexible, and efficient transit systems.

CONTENTS

Summary

Chapter 1 Background

Objective and Scope

Key Terms

Technical Approach to Project Research

Chapter 2  Literature Review

Introduction to Integration or Consolidation of ADA Paratransit with Microtransit

Traditional Differences Between Paratransit and Microtransit

Possible Challenges for ADA Paratransit Customers

Accommodations and Compliance in Commingling Designs

Current Prevalence and Practices

Research and Reports on Practices and Effectiveness

Chapter 3  Survey Results

Introduction

Service Designs and Parameters

Booking, Scheduling, and Communication

Customer Considerations and Accommodations

Fleet Mixture and Dispatching

Benefits and Impacts

Lessons Learned and Challenges

Chapter 4  Case Examples

Airdrie Transit, City of Airdrie, Alberta

Town of Great Barrington, Massachusetts

Butler County Regional Transit Authority, Hamilton, Ohio

Tri-County Metropolitan Transportation District of Oregon (TriMet), Portland, Oregon

Citibus, City of Lubbock, Texas

Chapter 5  Conclusion

Service Design and Parameters

Booking and Communication

Commingling Processes

Customer Considerations and Accommodations

Fleet Mixture and Dispatching

Further Research Suggestions

References 

Appendix A Survey Instrument 

Appendix B Surveyed Agencies and Responses