p. 5 the prevalence of obesity in the United States: Ogden, C. L., et al. 2002. JAMA 288(14):1728-1732.

p. 5 The epidemic has spread to preschool-age children, even toddlers: Koplan, J. P., et al., eds. 2005. Preventing Childhood Obesity: Health in the Balance. Institute of Medicine. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

p. 6 Figure: Trends in childhood obesity in U.S. girls and boys aged 6 through 19 years: Ogden, C. L., M. D. Carroll, and C. L. Johnson. 2002. JAMA 288(14):1728-1732.

p. 6 a majority of overweight kids and teenagers have already developed: Freedman, D. S., et al. 1999. Pediatrics 103(6 Pt 1):1175-1182.

p. 7 Julie Gerberding … declared obesity the number one health threat: Reuters, October 28, 2003.

p. 12 children represented by the “heavy” half of the curve … leaner children represented by the “light” half: Flegal, K. M., and R. P. Troiano. 2000. International Journal of Obesity 24:807-818.

p. 12 Figure: This schematic graph … helps illustrate the concept of

BMI distribution shifts: Described in Flegal, K. M., and R. P. Troiano. 2000. International Journal of Obesity 24:807-818.

p. 14 Among kids of both sexes … 40 percent of Mexican Americans and 36 percent of African Americans: Ogden, C. L., op cit.

p. 14 The prevalence of obesity among 7-year-old American Indian children: Caballero, B., et al. 2003. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 78:308-312.

p. 15 probably much more difficult to avoid ingesting too many calories: Drewnowski, A., and S. E. Specter. 2004. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 79:6-16.

p. 15 placed the annual toll of obesity and inactivity at 400,000 deaths per year: Mokdad, A. H., et al. 2004. JAMA 291(10):1238-1245. On November 23, 2004, as this book went to press, the Wall Street Journal reported that the CDC was conducting an internal review of computational errors made in this study and was expected to revise downward its estimate of the annual number of deaths linked to obesity. The article said that the study’s authors planned to submit an erratum or correction to the Journal of the American Medical Association after the CDC’s internal inquiry was completed.

p. 16 Almost 80 percent of obese adults … have one of those conditions: Koplan, J. P., and W. H. Dietz.1999. JAMA 282:1579-1581.

p. 16 cost of hospitalizations of children … for obesity-related illnesses tripled: Dietz, W. H. 2004. New England Journal of Medicine 350:855-857.

p. 16 the incidence of this type of diabetes in children rose tenfold: Pinhas-Hamiel, O., et al. 1996. Journal of Pediatrics 128:608-615.

p. 16 Thirty percent of boys and 40 percent of girls … will become diabetic: Narayan, K. M., et al. 2003. JAMA 290:1884-1890.

p. 17 Indeed, type 2 diabetes may be a more rapidly progressive disease in children than in adults: Styne, D. M. 2001. Pediatric Clinics of North America 48(4):823-854.

p. 18 Almost 30 percent of overweight children … have the metabolic syndrome: Cook, S., et al. 2003. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 157:821-827.

p. 18 a recent national study found that between 1988 and 2000 the average blood pressure of children in the United States edged upward by a couple of points: Muntner, P., et al. 2004. JAMA 291:2107-2113.

p. 18 Researchers have also documented worrisome changes in the hearts and arteries of obese children: Woo, K. S., et al. 2004. Circulation 109:1981-1986.

p. 19 About two-thirds of people who are overweight or obese as adults were not overweight during the first 20 years of their lives: Bray, G. A. 2002. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 76(3):497-498.

p. 19 “may be ideal candidates for treatment because the parents still have the opportunity to influence their children’s activity and diet positively”: Whitaker, R. C., et al. 1997. New England Journal of Medicine 337:869-873.

p. 20 classified as “lean” if their BMI fell between the 25th and 50th percentiles: Must, A., et al. 1992. New England Journal of Medicine 327:1350-1355.

p. 20 Recently a much larger study found that being overweight in adolescence affects adult mortality rates about equally in both sexes: Engeland, A., et al. 2003. American Journal of Epidemiology 157:517-523.

p. 21 being severely obese as a young adult reduces life expectancy more in black men than in white men: Fontaine, K. R., et al. 2003. JAMA 289(2):187-193.

p. 21 These findings … have been criticized on various technical grounds: Manson, J. E., and S. S. Bassuk. 2003. JAMA 289(2):229-230.

p. 29 When the gene for leptin was identified and sequenced in 1994: Zhang, Y., et al. 1994. Nature 372:425-432.

p. 30 In little more than a decade, scientists have sketched the broad outlines of the biological system that regulates body weight: Sources for the scientific explanation that follows: Flier, J. S. 2004. Cell 116:337-350; Spiegelman, B. M., and J. S. Flier. 2001. Cell 104:531-543.

p. 32 The fall in leptin triggers: Leibel, R. L. 2002. Nutrition Reviews 60(10):S15-S19.

p. 34 when people are presented with appetizing, good-smelling food, many regions of the brain become metabolically active: Wang, G. L., et al. 2004. Neuroimage 21(4):1790-1797.

p. 34 The ubiquitous transmitter chemicals dopamine and serotonin … are also believed to affect feeding behavior and the rewarding aspects of food: Saper, C. B., et al. 2002. Neuron 36:199-211.

p. 35 Findings like these may help explain why people who are depressed or anxious often seek out specific “comfort foods”: Dallman, M. F., et al. 2003. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(20):11696-11701.

p. 35 fat cells actively metabolize steroid hormones such as male and female sex hormones: Kershaw, E. E., and J. S. Flier. 2004. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 89(6):2548-2556.

p. 36 a team of British researchers led by Stephen O’Rahilly reported the cases of two children … who had suffered from severe obesity since infancy: Montague, C. T., et al. 1997. Nature 387:903-908.

p. 40 Stunkard concluded that hereditary factors account for about 70 percent of obesity and environmental factors for only about 30 percent: Stunkard, A. J., et al. 1990. New England Journal of Medicine 322:1483-1487.

p. 41 “Genetic influences have an important role in determining human fatness in adults,” the research team concluded: Stunkard, A. J., et al. 1986. New England Journal of Medicine 314:193-198.

p. 41 researchers concluded that genes account for only about 25 to 40 percent of the variation in people’s tendency to store excess body fat: Bouchard, C., et al. 2003. Genetics of Human Obesity. In: Bray, G. A., and C. Bouchard, eds. Handbook of Obesity, Etiology and Pathophysiology. Second Edition. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.

p. 41 Some researchers suggest that people can probably be categorized according to their degree of inherited risk … and genetic resistance to becoming overweight: Loos, R. J., and C. Bouchard. 2003. Journal of Internal Medicine 254(5):401-425.

p. 42 research indicates that the influence of genetics on body weight is as strong as its influence on height: Flier, J. S. 2004. Cell 116:337-350.

p. 42 Studies of twins tell us that genetics plays as great a role in establishing obesity risk: Stunkard, A. J. 1986. JAMA 256:51-54.

p. 44 That’s less than 1 percent of an adult’s average daily intake: Weigle, D. S. 1994. FASEB Journal 8(3):302-310.

p. 47 They practiced traditional methods of agriculture and farming until white settlers diverted the Gila River: Tataranni, P. A. 2001. Reviews in Endocrine & Metabolic Disorders 2:365-369.

p. 48 In a 1994 study Ravussin compared a group of Arizona Pimas with a group of Pimas: Ravussin, E., et al. 1994. Diabetes Care 17:1067-1074.

p. 49 In a 2002 study Robert S. Lindsay and colleagues reported that the pattern of weight gain in Pima children differs markedly from U.S. national norms: Lindsay, R. S., et al. 2002. Pediatrics 109:e33. [Online]. Available at: http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/109/2/e33 [accessed November 12, 2004].

p. 49 A 2002 study by Arline D. Salbe and colleagues found that Pima 5- and 10-year-olds who participated in more sports … were less likely to be obese: Salbe, A. D., et al. 2002. Pediatrics 110:307-314.

p. 56 In a survey by Stanford University researchers of more than 900 California third-grade students: Robinson, T. N., et al. 2001. Journal of Pediatrics 138:181-187.

p. 56 Among white girls, higher socioeconomic status and higher levels of education are associated with lower levels of obesity: Kimm, S. Y., et al. 1996. Annals of Epidemiology 6:266-275.

p. 58 Its relative frequency in other racial or ethnic groups is uncertain: [Online]. Available at: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/eatingdisorders.cfm [accessed November 9, 2004].

p. 60 A majority did not routinely perform recommended checks … all serious problems that can develop in obese kids: Barlow, S. E., et al. 2002. Pediatrics 110:222-228.

p. 61 somewhat more realistic about their own body size: Baughcum, A. E., et al. 2000. Pediatrics 106:1380-1386.

p. 61 Making parents aware of the health risks for children of being overweight: American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition. 2003. Pediatrics 112:424-430.

p. 62 At least one state—Arkansas—is in the process of adopting such a program statewide: Judith Graham, “Arkansas to grade kids on obesity.” Chicago Tribune. September 15, 2003.

p. 62 Among parents of overweight kids who did not receive such reports: Chomitz, V. R., et al. 2003. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 157:765-772.

p. 63 girls and boys who were frequent dieters gained more weight annually than those who never dieted: Field, A. E., et al. 2003. Pediatrics 112:900-906.

p. 63 “They hate the fact that Briana is heavy and try to pin it on me”: Balancing Act, by Sherry Arria as told to Liz Welch, New York Times Magazine. September 7, 2003.

p. 64 Johnson and Birch found that the very children whose mothers tried hardest to control how much they ate: Johnson, S. L., and L. L. Birch. 1994. Pediatrics 94(5):653-661.

p. 64 Girls who had been overweight at 5 … showed the greatest degree of overeating at the age of 9: Birch, L. L., et al. 2003. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 78(2):215-220.

p. 65 early dietary restriction may predispose girls: Birch, L. L., and J. O. Fisher. 1998. Pediatrics 101:539-549.

p. 65 concluded that girls whose parents controlled their food intake tended to be less overweight, not more so: Robinson, T. N., et al. 2001. Obesity Research 9(5):306-312.

p. 67 stigmatization of overweight children has worsened in recent decades: Latner, J. D., and A. J. Stunkard. 2003. Obesity Research March 11(3):452-456.

p. 67 One study found that overweight girls … were less likely to gain acceptance to elite colleges than their slender peers: Canning, H., and J. Mayer. 1966. New England Journal of Medicine 275:1172-1174.

p. 67 the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, found that women who were obese in late adolescence and young adulthood: Gortmaker, S. L., et al. 1993. New England Journal of Medicine 329:1008-1012.

p. 68 girls who expressed concern about their weight: Erickson, S. J., et al. 2000. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 154(9):931-935.

p. 68 Robinson found, body size … was the strongest predictor of body dissatisfaction: Robinson, T. N., et al. 1996. Journal of Adolescent Health December 19(6):384-393.

p. 68 those who were very overweight did have more negative feelings about their appearance: Young-Hyman, D., et al. 2003. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 28(7):463-472.

p. 69 two to three times more likely to consider or attempt suicide than those who had not: Eisenberg, M. E., et al. 2003. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 157:733-738.

p. 69 Overweight children were almost twice as likely as lean children not to be named as a friend: Strauss, R. S., and H. A. Pollack. 2003. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 157:746-752.

p. 70 “I don’t have to conform to your images”: Courtesy of Michael Rich. From a collection of video clips viewed at Children’s Hospital, Boston, on June 3, 2003.

p. 70 Researchers Elizabeth Goodman and Robert C. Whitaker performed a prospective study of more than 9,000 children: Goodman, E., and R. C. Whitaker. 2002. Pediatrics 110(3):497-504.

p. 82 “It is not likely that we will ever return the environment”: Hill, J. O., et al. 2003. Science 299(5608):853-855.

p. 82 The amount of food available to the U.S. population: French, S. A., et al. 2001. Annual Review of Public Health 22:309-335.

p. 82 average daily caloric intake for women in 1999–2000: McKay, B. Wall Street Journal. February 6, 2004.

p. 83 the NHANES have consistently documented: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2004. MMWR 53:80-82.

p. 83 these cross-sectional studies—“snapshots” of dietary intake at different points in time: Wright, J. D., et al. 2003. Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics April 17(334):1-4; Gleason, P., and C. Suitor. 2001. United States Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service Report No. CN-01-CD1; Nielsen, S. J., et al. 2002. Obesity Research 10:370-378; Morton, J. F., and J. F. Guthrie. 1998. Family Economics and Nutrition Review 11:44-57.

p. 83 Americans reduced their fat intake between 1970 and 1994: French, S. A., et al. 2001. Annual Review of Public Health 22:309-335.

p. 83 One analysis of children’s intake: Morton, J. F., and J. F. Guthrie, op cit.

p. 84 Milk consumption decreased by 37 percent in adolescent boys: Cavandini, C., et al. 2000. Archives of Disease in Childhood 83:18-24.

p. 84 one-third of girls and more than half of boys are drinking three or more … soft drinks per day: Guthrie, J. F., and J. F. Morton. 2000. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 100:43-51.

p. 84 currently make up 16 percent of Americans’ total calorie intake: French, S. A., et al., op cit.

p. 84 linked soft drink consumption with higher total daily calorie intake and increased risk of obesity: Ludwig, D. S., et al. 2001. Lancet 357:505-508.

p. 85 The same study also showed that high intake of sugar-sweetened soft drinks or fruit punch: Schulze, M. B., et al. 2004. JAMA 292:927-934.

p. 85 In 1996 Americans ate an average of 1.3 servings of fruit per day: French, S. A., et al., op cit.

p. 85 children ate an average of 4.1 servings of fruits and vegetables daily: Gleason, P., and C. Suitor, op cit.

p. 86 dark green and orange vegetables … made up only 8 percent of kids’ vegetable intake: Centers for Disease Control. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, National Center for Health Statistics. [Online]. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/ppt/hpdata2010/focusareas/fa19.ppt#16 [accessed November 12, 2004].

p. 86 five vegetables—iceberg lettuce, frozen potatoes, fresh potatoes, potato chips, and canned tomatoes: Putnam, J., et al. 2002. Food Review 25:2-15.

p. 86 In 1997 nearly half of family expenditures for food were spent on food and drink prepared outside the home: Putnam, J., et al. 1999. Pp. 133-160 in: Frazao, E., ed. America’s Eating Habits: Changes and Consequences. Washington, DC: Economic Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture; Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 750.

p. 86 consumption of foods prepared away from home made up almost a third of children’s total calorie intake: Lin, B. H., et al. 1999. Pp. 213-242 in: Frazao, E., ed. America’s Eating Habits: Changes and Consequences. Washington, DC: Economic Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture; Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 750.

p. 86 Although all the kids in the study tended to overconsume fast food: Ebbeling, C. B., et al. 2004. JAMA 291(23):2828-2833.

p. 87 The recent expansion in the nation’s portion sizes started as a marketing strategy: Nielsen, S. J., and B. M. Popkin. 2003. JAMA 289:450-453.

p. 87 Today, a regular can of Coca-Cola holds 12 ounces: Pendergrast, M. 2000. For God, Country, and Coca Cola: The Definitive History of the Great American Soft Drink and the Company That Makes It. New York: Basic Books.

p. 87 The ballooning of portion sizes is reflected on grocery store shelves and even in cookbook recipes: Young, L. R., and M. Nestle. 2002. American Journal of Public Health 92:246-249.

p. 88 as children grow older, they become responsive to environmental cues: Rolls, B. J., et al. 2000. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 100:232-234.

p. 88 Rolls and colleagues found that when they doubled the size of an entree served at lunch: Fisher, J. O., B. J. Rolls, and L. L. Birch. 2003. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77:1164-1170.

p. 88 Food manufacturers, retailers, and services are second only to the automobile industry: Gallo, A. E. 1999. In: Frazao, E., ed. America’s Eating Habits: Changes and Consequences. Washington, DC: Economic Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture; Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 750.

p. 88 Food and beverage advertisers spend an estimated: Nestle, M. 2002. Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. P. 179.

p. 88 One study found that television commercials influence: Borzekowski, D. L., and T. N. Robinson. 2001. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 101:42-46.

p. 88 McDonald’s spent almost $572 million: French, S. A., et al. 2001. Annual Review of Public Health 22:309-335.

p. 89 Hill writes, “as a society, we should be more willing … to carefully manage the food and physical activity environments”: Hill, J. O., et al. 2003. Science 299:853-855.

p. 90 Recent studies in children and adults have also found that those who eat breakfast regularly: Albertson, A. M., et al. 2003. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103:1613-1619; Pereira, M. A. Report at American Heart Association meeting. March 6, 2003.

p. 90 It also appears that there is nothing magic about a three-meals-a-day schedule: Yunsheng, M., et al. 2003. American Journal of Epidemiology 158(1):85-92.

p. 91 found that those who ate dinner at home with their families consumed fewer fried foods: Gillman, M. W., et al. 2000. Archives of Family Medicine 9:235-240.

pp. 92-93 those who were taught to focus on noticing the sensation

of fullness in their stomachs: Birch, L. L., et al. 1987. Learning and Motivation 18:301-317.

p. 93 research has shown that even picky toddlers eat an appropriate and consistent number of calories: Birch, L. L., et al. 1991. New England Journal of Medicine 324:232-235.

p. 95 When the USDA’s familiar Food Guide Pyramid … was first released in 1992: Willett, W. C., and M. J. Stampfer. 2003. Scientific American January:64-71.

p. 96 During the same period, an increasing proportion of the population has become overweight or obese: Willett, W. C. 2001. Eat, Drink, and Be Healthy: The Harvard Medical School Guide to Healthy Eating. New York: Simon & Schuster. P. 45.

p. 96 It also notes the evidence linking sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: 2005 Report of the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. [Online]. Available at: http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/report [accessed November 11, 2004].

p. 99 Table: Types of Dietary Fat: reprinted with the permission of Simon & Schuster Adult Publishing Group from Eat, Drink, and Be Healthy: The Harvard Medical School Guide to Healthy Eating by Walter C. Willett, M.D. Copyright © 2001 by President and Fellows of Harvard College.

p. 100 An authoritative report on dietary intake was issued in 2002 by the Institute of Medicine: Institute of Medicine. 2002. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

p. 101 Examples of items to be removed from kitchen shelves … might be fried chips, candy, and high-fat baked goods: Katz, D. L. 2002. The Way to Eat. Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, Inc.

p. 103 urges that large clinical trials be carried out in overweight adults: Parikh, S. J., and J. A. Yanovski. 2003. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77:281-287.

p. 104 People who regularly eat lots of fruits and vegetables: Willett, W. C., op cit.

p. 104 Vegetables with a hard surface: Food Safety and Inspection Service, USDA. Does Washing Food Promote Food Safety? [Online]. Available at: http://www.fsis.usda.gov/OA/pubs/washing.htm [accessed November, 11, 2004].

p. 105 researchers found that a diet containing 8 to 10 servings of fruits and vegetables per day: Moore, T., et al. 2001. The DASH Diet for Hypertension. New York: Simon & Schuster.

p. 105 Some fiber remains solid (insoluble) in the digestive tract: Willett, W. C., op cit.

p. 106 The site has a helpful chart of serving sizes: [Online]. Available at: http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/ [accessed November 11, 2004].

p. 107 Rolls’s findings form the basis for a practical, relatively low-fat approach to eating: Rolls, B. J., and R. A. Barnett. 2000. Volumetrics. New York: HarperCollins.

p. 107 some experts recommend dividing each person’s dinner plate into imaginary sections: American Institute for Cancer Research. The New American Plate. [Online]. Available at: www.aicr.org/publications/nap/nap2.lasso [accessed November 11, 2004].

p. 107 It’s a good idea to keep plenty of “green” foods visible: Epstein, L. H., and S. Squires. 1988. The Stoplight Diet for Children. Boston: Little, Brown and Co.

p. 108 contained the surprising finding that eating a potato raised blood glucose levels as rapidly: Bantle, J. P., et al. 1983. New England Journal of Medicine 309:7-12.

p. 108 found that low-glycemic-index diets improve blood sugar control in diabetes: Ludwig, D. S. 2002. JAMA 287:2414-2423.

p. 109 The third test meal had exactly the same number of calories as the other two: Ludwig, D. S., et al. 1999. Pediatrics 103:E26.

p. 110 those in the low-glycemic-index group … had lost significantly more weight and more fat: Ebbeling, C. B., et al. 2003. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 157:773-779.

p. 111 “Increase consumption of fruits, vegetables and legumes”: Ludwig, D. S. 2002. JAMA 287:2414-2423.

p. 119 Texas, for example, recently legislated 135 minutes of activity a week: Reinhart, D. “Schools learn how to get in more exercise time.” Beaumont Enterprise. October 24, 2003.

p. 120 The most highly educated Americans were the group most likely to engage in regular vigorous activity: Barnes, P. M., and C. A. Schoenborn. 2003. Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics May 14(333):1-23.

p. 121 About one-quarter of participants said they did no moderate physical activity: Spors, K. K. Wall Street Journal. October 21, 2003.

p. 121 The step counts for girls were lower than for boys: Vincent, S. D., et al. 2003. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise August 35(8):1367-1373.

p. 121 A 1996 report of the U.S. Surgeon General recommends:

Physical Activity and Health: A Report from the Surgeon General. 1996. Atlanta, GA: United States Department of Health and Human Services.

p. 122 The Institute of Medicine recommends at least an hour of moderately intense activity daily: Institute of Medicine. 2002. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

p. 122 Concerns about traffic danger prevent an estimated 20 million children: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2002. MMWR. August 16;51(32):701-704.

p. 122 Most children in grades 1 through 6 are enrolled in physical education: Kohl, H. W., and K. E. Hobbs. 1998. Pediatrics 101:549-554.

p. 122 students engaged in only about three minutes of moderate to vigorous exercise: Sallis, J. F., et al. 1997. American Journal of Public Health 87:1328-1334.

p. 122 children may average as little as 10 minutes per week of moderate to vigorous activity in school P.E. classes: Robinson, T. N. 2001. Pp. 129-141 in: Johnston, F. E., and G. D. Foster, eds. Obesity, Growth and Development. London: Smith-Gordon and Company.

p. 122 Fields and courts are so crowded: Di Massa, C. M. “Campus Crowding Can Make PE a Challenge.” Los Angeles Times. November 19, 2003.

p. 123 Figure: The percentage of trips during normal school travel hours: Special Report 269: The Relative Risks of School Travel. 2002. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board, National Research Council. P. 88.

p. 123 About half of U.S. schools require physical education for students in grades 1 through 5: Burgeson, C. R., et al. 2001. Journal of School Health 71:279-293.

p. 123 Higher family incomes … linked to higher physical activity levels: Gordon-Larsen, P., et al. 2000. Pediatrics 105(6):e83.

p. 123 Along with declining overall activity levels: Aaron, D. J., et al. 2002. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 156:1075-1080.

p. 124 activity levels fall by 64 percent for white girls and by 100 percent for black girls: Kimm, S. Y., et al. 2002. New England Journal of Medicine 347(10):709-715.

p. 124 About half of high school girls report: Goran, M. I., et al. 1999. International Journal of Obesity 23(Suppl 3):S18-S33.

p. 125 boys also retain fairly constant levels of aerobic power relative to their body mass: Kohl, H. W., op cit.

p. 125 The girls’ food intake (adjusted for their weight): Goran, M. I., et al. 1998. Pediatrics 101(5):887-891.

p. 126 The body fat content of children in the program: Luepker, R. V., et al. 1998. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 9:525-534.

p. 126 The federally sponsored program Pathways: Caballero, B., et al. 2003. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 78:1030-1038.

p. 127 But SPARK participants did not increase their activity levels outside school: Sallis, J. F., et al. 1997. American Journal of Public Health 87(8):1328-1334.

p. 127 those in the endurance group were not only fitter but showed a significant reduction in fatness: Dwyer, T., et al. 1983. International Journal of Epidemiology 12:308-313.

p. 128 girls in the Dance for Health classes significantly lowered their BMIs and their resting heart rates: Flores, R. 1995. Public Health Report March-April;110(2):189-193.

p. 133 Robinson estimated that … children in the United States spend an average of more than three years of their waking lives watching TV: Robinson, T. N. 1998. JAMA 279:959-960.

p. 133 One-quarter of children in this age group have a television in their bedrooms: Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. Fall 2003. Zero to Six: Electronic Media in the Lives of Infants, Toddlers and Preschoolers. [Online]. Available at: http://www.kff.org/entmedia/3378.cfm [accessed November 12, 2004].

p. 133 the average time spent in such pursuits rises to 4.5 hours per day: Robinson, T. N. 2001. Pediatric Clinics of North America 48(4):1017-1025.

p. 134 Figure: Daily media use among children: Kids & Media @ The New Millennium, #1535, Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. November 1999. This information was reprinted with permission of the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. The Foundation, based in Menlo Park, California, is a non-profit, independent national health care philanthropy and is not associated with Kaiser Permanente or Kaiser Industries.

p. 134 Gortmaker suggested that a “dose-response relationship” exists: Gortmaker, S. L., et al. 1996. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 150:356-362.

p. 134 evidence indicating that TV watching was a contributing factor to weight gain: Dietz, W. H., and S. L. Gortmaker. 1985. Pediatrics 75:807-812.

p. 134 preschoolers with a TV set in their bedrooms: Dennison, B. A., et al. 2002. Pediatrics 109:1028-1035.

p. 135 Food and drink consumed while watching television: Matheson, D. M., et al. 2004. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 79:1088-1094.

p. 135 children younger than 7 or 8 do not understand that com-

mercials are different from other program content: Wilcox, B. L., et al. 2004. Report of the APA Task Force on Advertising and Children. Washington DC: American Psychological Association.

p. 136 A 2001 study found that in families that watched television during two or more meals per day: Coon, K. A., et al. 2001. Pediatrics 107:e7.

p. 136 A recent Australian study found that people who eat lying down: Mundell, E. J. Reuters Health. Report on an oral presentation by Deirdre O’Donovan of the University of Adelaide at the Digestive Disease Week conference in Orlando, Florida. May 20, 2003.

p. 136 watching TV may consume even less energy than other sedentary activities: Klesges, R. C., et al. 1993. Pediatrics 91:281-286.

p. 136 Television watching was among the sedentary activities targeted: Epstein, L. H., et al. 1995. Journal of Health Psychology 14:109-115.

p. 137 Children in the schools where Planet Health was introduced: Gortmaker, S. L., et al. 1999. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 153:409-418.

p. 137 Girls and overweight boys in the study who increased their physical activity level: Berkey, C. S., et al. 2003. Pediatrics. 111:836-843.

p. 137 Children’s TV and video time should be limited: Dietz, W. H., and S. L. Gortmaker. 1993. Pediatrics 91:499-501.

p. 138 “Take note of the times when you watch TV but aren’t really interested”: Carter, J., J. Wiecha, K. Peterson, and S. L. Gortmaker. 2001. Planet Health: An Interdisciplinary Curriculum for Teaching Middle School Nutrition and Physical Activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishing. P. 30.

p. 141 The authors speculated that the daily walking done by the city-dwellers made the difference: Ewing, R., et al. 2003. American Journal of Health Promotion 18(1):47-57.

p. 142 Kids whose parents are physically active are almost six times as likely: Moore, L. L., et al. 1991. Journal of Pediatrics 118:215-219.

p. 142 At least one study suggests that parental activity levels are more closely correlated: Gottlieb, N. H., and M. S. Chen.1985. Social Science & Medicine 21:533-539.

p. 143 Experiences likely to prejudice children against continuing to participate in sports: American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness and Committee on School Health. 2001. Pediatrics 107:1459-1462.

p. 147 Its national parent program, America on the Move, is sponsored primarily by food and beverage companies: [Online]. Available at: http://www.ppheal.org/our_sponsors.html [accessed November 12, 2004].

p. 152 the environment in the womb can affect an individual’s later risk of obesity: Oken, E., and M. W. Gillman. 2003. Obesity Research 11:496-506.

p. 153 the rates of obesity and overweight grew faster among women of childbearing age: Cogswell, M. E., et al. 2001. Primary Care Update for Ob/Gyns 8:89-105.

p. 153 The percentage of pregnant women who gain more than 40 pounds during their pregnancies has been rising: Martin, J. A., et al. 2003. Births: Final Data for 2002. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Vital Statistics Reports 52:1-114.

p. 154 They have a higher frequency of stillbirth than women who are not overweight: Sebire, N. J., et al. 2001. International Journal of Obesity 25:1175-1182.

p. 154 Their babies also have higher rates of several types of birth defects: Watkins, M. L., et al. 2003. Pediatrics 111:1152-1158.

p. 154 the percentage of pregnant women who fail to gain even this minimum amount: Martin, J. A., et al., op cit.

p. 155 Full-term infants are considered appropriate for gestational age: Medline Plus: Medical Encyclopedia. [Online]. Available at: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ [accessed November 12, 2004].

p. 157 Infants of diabetic mothers “are born large but decrease their weight into a normal range”: Styne, D. M. 2001. Pediatric Clinics of North America 48:823-854.

p. 157 Researchers at Northwestern University monitored children of diabetic mothers: Silverman, B. L., et al. 1995. Diabetes Care 18:611-617.

p. 158 researchers found that those who had been exposed to diabetes before birth had a higher frequency of obesity: Dabelea, D., et al. 2000. Diabetes 49:2208-2211.

p. 158 Almost all have found a direct association: “Higher birth weight is associated with higher attained BMI”: Oken, E., and M. W. Gillman, op cit.

p. 159 the association between high birth weight and later obesity risk was reduced but not eliminated: Gillman, M. W., et al. 2003. Pediatrics 111(3):e221-e226.

p. 160 newborn rats fed a high-carbohydrate diet respond by producing excessive amounts of insulin even as adults and become obese: Aalinkeel, R., et al. 2001. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism 281:E640-E648.

p. 160 The leptin surge had to occur during a critical period in early life: Bouret, S. G., et al. 2004. Science 304:108-110.

p. 160 “Nutritional or other environmental factors that suppress leptin during brain development”: Oregon Health & Science University, press release. April 1, 2004.

p. 160 In rats that were “overfed” from birth by being raised in unusually small litters: Davidowa, H., et al. 2002. NeuroReport 13:1523-1527; Li, Y., et al. 2002. Neuroscience Letters 330:33-36.

p. 162 certain aspects of the Dutch study’s design may have reduced the validity of its findings: Ravelli, G. P., et al. 1976. New England Journal of Medicine 295:349-353.

p. 162 although two infants may be born with identical birth weights: Barker, D. 2003. The Best Start in Life. London: Century. Pp. 52-53.

p. 163 The mean birth weight for a “singleton” baby: Martin, J. A., op cit.

p. 164 Researchers do not have enough evidence yet to know whether some infants who are part of multiple births face similar health risks: Barker, D., op cit., p. 79.

p. 165 Despite the fact that almost half of nonpregnant women in the United States report that are they’re trying to lose weight: Cogswell, M. E., op cit.

p. 166 adequate weight gain during pregnancy is very important for fetal growth: Institute of Medicine: Committee on Nutritional Status During Pregnancy and Lactation, Food and Nutrition Board. 1990. Nutrition During Pregnancy. Part 1, Weight Gain; Part II, Nutrient Supplements. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

p. 167 Breastfeeding has many proven advantages over formula feeding: American Academy of Pediatrics: Work Group on Breastfeeding. 1997. Pediatrics 100:1035-1039.

p. 168 Despite the AAP’s recommendations: Li, R., et al. 2003. Pediatrics 111(5):1198-1201.

p. 169 overweight women in general have more difficulty breastfeeding than slender women: Li, R., et al. 2003. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77:931-936.

p. 169 Only four studies suggested that breastfeeding provided some protection: Butte, N. F., 2001. Pediatric Clinics of North America 48(1)189-198.

p. 170 Kathryn G. Dewey … recently assessed a group of larger and newer studies: Dewey, K. G. 2003. Journal of Human Lactation 19:9-18.

p. 171 rapid weight gain during the first four months of life was associated with a higher risk of being overweight at the age of 7: Stettler, N., et al. 2002. Pediatrics 109(2):194-199.

p. 171 showed that rapid weight gain in the early months of infancy was associated with a doubling of obesity risk at age 20: Stettler, N., et al. 2003. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77:1374-1378.

p. 172 hopeful that future data from the PROBIT trial may help answer the question of whether breastfeeding really helps protect against later obesity: Kramer, M. S., et al. 2001. JAMA 285(4):413-420.

p. 173 Breastfed infants under 6 months old generally do not need water, juice, or other foods: American Academy of Pediatrics: Work Group on Breastfeeding. 1997. Pediatrics 100:1035-1039.

p. 175 Smell’s key contribution to our perception of flavors explains why foods taste flat to us when we have a cold: Mennella, J. A. 1999. Pp. 104-113 in: Swaiman, K. F., and S. Ashwal, eds. Pediatric Neurology. St. Louis: Mosby, Inc.

p. 176 Animal research suggests that foods to which a fetus is exposed in this way may be preferred by the infant after birth: Mennella, J. A., op cit.

p. 176 showed that breast-fed infants stayed attached to the nipple longer: Mennella, J. A., and G. K. Beauchamp. 1993. Pediatric Research 34:805-808; Mennella, J. A., and G. K. Beauchamp, 1996. Infant Behavior & Development 19:13-19.

p. 176 Those who had been exposed to the flavor of carrot juice either before birth: Mennella, J. A., et al. 2001. Pediatrics 107:e88.

p. 177 A study by another pair of researchers found that breast-fed babies more readily accepted a new vegetable than did formula-fed ones: Sullivan, S. A., and L. L. Birch. 1994. Pediatrics 93:271-277.

p. 178 Such antibodies may be involved in causing damage to these insulin-producing cells: Ziegler, A. G., et al. 2003. JAMA 290:1721-1728; Norris, J. M., et al. 2003. JAMA 290:1713-1720.

p. 178 There was no statistically significant difference in sleep patterns or sleep duration: Macknin, M.L., et al. 1989. American Journal of Diseases of Children 143:1066-1068.

p. 179 (If a mother decides to stop breastfeeding before her infant is 6 months old, the baby should receive only formula until the age of 6 months.): American Academy of Pediatrics: Work Group on Breastfeeding. 1997. Pediatrics 100(6):1035-1039.

p. 179 “because ingesting new substances is a risky business, most new foods are not immediately accepted”: Birch, L. L. 1998. Journal of Nutrition 128:407S-410S.

p. 179 preschool-age children who initially disliked certain vegetables began eating them after they saw other children eat them: Birch, L. L., and J. O. Fisher. 1998. Pediatrics 101:539-549.

p. 180 Although children in the study initially liked the lower-calorie and higher-calorie soups and yogurts equally well: Johnson, S. L., et al. 1991. Physiology & Behavior 50:1245-1251.

p. 180 It’s unclear whether these children’s preference was geneti-

cally based or whether it was influenced by exposure to high-fat foods in the home: Birch, L. L. 1998. Journal of Nutrition. 128:407S-410S.

p. 182 the emphasis is on training the appetite and teaching children to learn to eat the foods that adults eat: Stearns, P. N. 1997. Fat History: Bodies and Beauty in the Modern World. New York: New York University Press.

p. 186 children who are involved in growing food in school gardens have been shown to increase their liking for certain vegetables: Morris, J., and S. Zidenberg-Cherr. 2002. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 102:91-93.

p. 191 detailed guidelines were published by the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 1996: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1996. Guidelines for School Health Programs to Promote Lifelong Healthy Eating. MMWR June 14;45(RR-9):1-33.

p. 193 most school lunches contain a higher percentage of fat than the maximum specified by government requirements: General Accounting Office, School Lunch Program, May 2003. GAO-03-506.

p. 193 It is extremely rare for a school to lose its eligibility to participate in the federal school lunch program: Interview with Suanne Buggy, USDA public information officer, August 2004.

p. 193 Researcher Robert Whitaker found that about 30 percent of elementary school students spontaneously chose lower-fat menu items: Whitaker, R. C., et al. 1994. Journal of Pediatrics Oct;125(4):535-540.

p. 194 students who had learned about them in class ate from 3 to 20 times more of them than did the students in the control group: Demas, A. 1998. American Journal of Cardiology 82:80T-82T.

p. 194 And students were no longer allowed seconds at meals except for fruits and vegetables: Quad City Times, Gannett News Service. March 24, 2003.

p. 194 The USDA conducted a successful pilot program in several states: Buzby, J. C., et al. May 2003. Evaluation of the USDA Fruit and Vegetable Pilot Program. Report to Congress. USDA Economic Research Service. [Online]. Available at: http://www.fns.usda.gov/cnd/Research/FV030063.pdf [accessed November 12, 2004].

p. 195 found to her astonishment that they offered a total of 363 different snack and beverage items for sale: Statement of Vivian B. Pilant, South Carolina Department of Education, June 16, 2003, at Institute of Medicine workshop in Washington, DC.

p. 195 Still, students often do have healthier alternatives: Wechsler, H., et al. 2001. Journal of School Health 71:313-324.

p. 196 “It wasn’t something I relished doing, but we had to for our financial survival, plain and simple”: Lee, E. “Fast-food profits tempt schools.” The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. May 5, 2003.

p. 196 Machines dispensing soft drinks and fruit drinks are featured in the majority of U.S. schools: General Accounting Office, op cit.

p. 196 One Florida county school board agreed in 2000 to a five-year agreement with Pepsi-Cola worth $13.5 million: Kerr, J. L. “Soft drink sales in schools face increasing criticism.” The Florida Times-Union. March 16, 2004.

p. 196 when prices for fresh fruit and baby carrots in a high school cafeteria were cut in half, sales of those items increased twofold to fourfold: French, S. A., et al. 1997. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 97:1008-1010.

p. 196 Since total sales from each machine increased, the revenue from vending machines and the profits that schools received were unaffected: French, S. A., et al. 2001. American Journal of Public Health 91(1):112-117.

p. 197 Table: Schools That Allow Food Promotion or Advertising: Adapted from Wechsler, H., N. D. Brener, S. Juester, and C. Miller. 2001. Journal of School Health 71(7):313-324.

p. 198 Kids’ daily intake of carbonated drink consumption rises sharply at around the age of 8: Rampersaud, G. C., et al. 2003. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103:97-100.

p. 198 Two-thirds of American adolescent girls and three-quarters of adolescent boys drink soft drinks daily: Borrud, L., et al. 1997. What we eat: USDA surveys food consumption changes. Community Nutrition Institute Newsletter. Pp. 4-5.

p. 198 researchers found that the more soda or sugar-sweetened drinks kids drink each day, the greater their risk of becoming obese: Ludwig, D. S., et al. 2001. Lancet 357:505-508.

p. 198 School authorities also issued new guidelines that reduced the amount of fat allowed in school lunches: “Junk Food Banned from Vending Machines.” Reuters. June 26, 2003.

p. 198 with some schools reporting a drop in revenues from vending machines when sodas disappeared: Merl, J. “Students learn to dispense with sodas.” Los Angeles Times. February 12, 2004.

p. 199 In August, 2003 school district officials were considering an exclusivity contract with a soft drink company: Snyder, S. “Views vary on school soda sales.” Philadelphia Inquirer. August 27, 2003.

p. 199 after widespread public criticism of the deal, they had retreated from the contract idea: Hardy, D. “Schools wary of soda deals.” Philadelphia Inquirer. January 22, 2004.

p. 199 At middle and junior high schools, sodas may not be sold during regular school hours: Litz, P. “Soda sales fizzed out in local schools.” Los Angeles Times. September 19, 2003. California Senate Bill No. 677. Chapter 415.

p. 199 schools would no longer be permitted to sell foods that compete with the cafeteria’s official breakfast, lunch, and after-school snack offerings: Russell Hughes, P. “State orders schools to cut out junk food.” Houston Chronicle. March 4, 2004.

p. 199 “Policymakers should try to increase the quantity and quality of physical education”: NSDA Statement on Efforts to Ban or Restrict the Sale of Carbonated Beverages in Schools. National Soft Drink Association, August 27, 2002. [Online]. Available at: http://www.nsda.org/pressroom/2002_statementonbans.asp [accessed November 12, 2004].

p. 200 The company also announced that it would no longer offer schools the large one-time payments: Coca Cola Issues Model Guidelines for School Beverage Partnerships. News release, The Coca-Cola Company, November 17, 2003. [Online]. Available at: http://www2.coca-cola.com/presscenter/nr_20031117_school_model_guidelines.html [accessed November, 12, 2004].

p. 216 (In children younger than 3 years old, being fat has been found not to predict future obesity risk.): Whitaker, R. C., et al. 1997. New England Journal of Medicine 337:869-873.

p. 216 In 1994 Epstein reported the results of 10 years of follow-up among 158 children he had treated for obesity: Epstein, L. H., et al. 1994. Health Psychology 13(5):373-383.

p. 217 “Successful behavioral programs are labor intensive”: Yanovski, J. A., and S. Z. Yanovski. 2003. JAMA 289(14):1851-1853.

p. 219 Most overweight children do not need to undergo a battery of expensive laboratory tests: Moran, R. 1999. American Family Physician 59(4):861-868.

p. 222 The 2005 edition of the federal government’s dietary guidelines: United States Department of Agriculture. 2005. Report of the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. [Online]. Available at: http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/report [accessed November 12, 2004].

p. 222 The Stoplight Diet … is another approach to changing children’s eating habits: Epstein, L. H., and S. S. Squires. 1988. The Stoplight Diet for Children. Boston: Little, Brown and Co.

p. 225 Current guidelines for doctors treating overweight kids advise: Barlow, S. E., and W. H. Dietz. 1998. Pediatrics 102(3):e29.

p. 229 The only published scientific trial of its effectiveness was done in adolescents between the ages of 12 and 18: Mellin, L. M., et al. 1987. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 87(3):333-338.

p. 230 A program using a similar approach, without the physical activity component: Figueroa-Colon, R., et al. 1993. American Journal of Diseases of Children 147:160-166; Figueroa-Colon, R., et al. 1996. Obesity Research 4:419-429.

p. 230 (However, the results in the 37 adolescents who declined to be evaluated may have been quite different.): Sothern, M. S., et al. 2002. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 102:S81-S85.

p. 232 Orlistat has recently been approved for obese children 12 years old or older: Food and Drug Administration. NDA 20-766/S-018. [Online]. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/medwatch/SAFETY/2003/03DEC_PI/Xenical_PI.pdf [accessed November 12, 2004].

p. 232 However, a large number of participants dropped out of both groups: James, W. P., et al. 2000. Lancet 356:2119-2125.

p. 232 Robert Berkowitz conducted a trial of sibutramine in overweight teenagers: Berkowitz, R. I., et al. 2003. JAMA 289:1805-1812.

p. 233 The best evidence supporting metformin’s value in delaying diabetes comes from the Diabetes Prevention Program: Knowler, W. C., et al. 2002. New England Journal of Medicine 346:393-403.

pp. 233-234 “Through its ability to reduce fasting blood glucose and insulin concentrations and to moderate weight gain”: Freemark, M., and D. Bursey. 2001. Pediatrics 107:E55.

p. 234 “the National Institutes of Health guidelines state that herbal preparations are not recommended as part of a weight-loss program”: Yanovski, S. Z., and J. A. Yanovski. 2002. New England Journal of Medicine 346:591-602.

p. 241 The annual chance of dying was 4.5 percent in patients who had not had the surgery: MacDonald, K. G., et al. 1997. Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery 1:213-220.

p. 242 Most patients lost weight successfully and kept off significant amounts: Sugerman, H. J., et al. 2003. Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery Jan;7(1):102-107.

p. 242 These deaths occurred 15 months and 3 ¹/₂ years, respectively, after the procedure: Breaux, C. W. 1995. Obesity Surgery 5:279-284.

p. 242 Surgeons and obesity experts at Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center have proposed a carefully considered set of guidelines: Inge, T. H., et al. 2004. Pediatrics 114:217-223.

p. 244 “the durability of surgically induced weight loss among adolescents remains to be clearly defined”: Inge, T. H., op cit.

p. 248 “All flourish when people eat more, and all employ armies of lobbyists to discourage governments from doing anything to inhibit overeating”: Nestle, M. 2003. Science 299:781.

p. 248 “Very little is happening at the top. A lot is happening at the bottom”: “The Obesigenic Environment and How to Deal With It,” an address by Kelly D. Brownell, presented at a symposium entitled Downsizing America: The Obesity Epidemic. Monday April 12, 2004.

p. 251 food and beverage advertisers currently spend between $10 billion and $12 billion each year to reach children and youth: Brownell, K. D., and K. B. Horgen. 2004. Food Fight: The Inside Story of the Food Industry, America’s Obesity Crisis and What We Can Do About It. New York: McGraw-Hill; Nestle, M. J. 2002. Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

p. 251 In 2002 annual sales of foods and drinks to children and adolescents in the United States totaled more than $27 billion: U.S. Market for Kids Foods and Beverages. June 2003. Fifth Edition. [Online]. Available at: http://www.marketresearch.com/researchindex/849192.html#pagetop [accessed November 12, 2004].

p. 251 concluded that “more than 50 percent of television advertisements directed at children promote foods and beverages such a candy, fast food”: Koplan, J. P., et al., eds. 2005. Preventing Childhood Obesity: Health in the Balance. Institute of Medicine. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

p. 251 Children see one food commercial, on average, during every five minutes of television that they watch: Kotz, K., and M. Story. 1994. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 94:1296-1300.

p. 251 Channel One … reaches an estimated eight million teenage students in more than 350,000 classrooms … shows 10 minutes of news and 2 minutes of commercials each day: Primedia Inc., Channel One network. [Online]. Available at: http://www.primediainc.com [accessed November 12, 2004].

p. 252 researchers found that more than two-thirds of Channel One’s commercials were for food products: Brand, J., and B. Greenberg. 1994. Journal of Advertising Research 34:18-23.

p. 252 Candy, cereal, and pizza makers also offer schools free “educational materials” featuring math or science lessons that use their products: Brownell, K. D., and K. B. Horgen, op cit.

p. 252 Advertising’s specific impact on children’s diet has been difficult to quantify because so many factors influence food choices: Hastings, G., et al. 2003. Review of Research on the Effects of Food Promotion to Children. Glasgow, UK: Center for Social Marketing, University of Strathclyde.

p. 252 “Wider impacts include the increased consumption of energy-dense foods and beverages and greater engagement in sedentary behaviors”: Koplan, J. P., et al., op cit.

p. 252 before the age of about 7 or 8, they don’t even understand that the purpose of an advertisement is to persuade, rather than to entertain or to inform: Wilcox, B. L., et al. 2004. Report of the APA Task Force on Advertising and Children. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

p. 252 the American Academy of Pediatrics in 1995 issued a policy statement that “advertising directed toward children is inherently deceptive and exploits children under 8 years of age”: American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Communications. 1995. Pediatrics 95(2):295-297.

p. 252 61 percent of respondents agreed with the statement that “advertising to children begins at too young an age”: Harris Interactive. Youth Marketers Feel It Is Appropriate to Begin Marketing to Kids at Age Seven. [Online]. Available at: http://www.harrisinteractive.com/news/allnewsbydate.asp?NewsID=792 [accessed on November 12, 2004].

p. 253 to restrict television advertising to children, on the grounds that all advertising that is directed at children too young to understand an ad’s intent is inherently unfair and deceptive: In the Matter of Children’s Advertising. 1978. 43 Fed. Reg. 17967.

p. 253 Congress passed a law in 1980 withdrawing the FTC’s authority to restrict children’s advertising and prohibiting it from adopting the proposed rules: Federal Trade Commission Improvements Act of 1980. PL 96-252.

p. 253 A renewed effort by the FTC to limit advertising to children would likely suffer from the same drawbacks as the 1970s effort: Engle, M. K. 2003. FTC Regulation of Marketing to Children. Presentation at the workshop on the Prevention of Childhood Obesity: Understanding the Influences of Marketing, Media and Family Dynamics. Committee on the Prevention of Obesity in Children and Youth, Institute of Medicine, Washington, DC. December 9, 2003.

p. 253 “As an industry, we strongly reject the claims that advertising causes childhood obesity”: Pereira, J., and A. Warren. Wall Street Journal. March 15, 2004. B1.

pp. 254-255 Parents should find out whether Channel One and other sources of advertising are present in their local schools: Koplan, J. P., et al., op cit.

p. 255 He cited the association’s successful suit several years ago by state attorneys general against tobacco companies: Reeves, A. Investor’s Business Daily. June 21, 2004. [Online]. Available at: http://www.investors.com.

p. 256 People who live in mixed-use neighborhoods with access to shops and public transportation tend to walk more, and to weigh less: Frank, L. D., et al. 2004. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 27:87-96.

p. 257 the percentage of children walking or biking to school increased from 21 percent when the program started to 38 percent two years later: Miller, L. Communities hoping to get kids walking to school again. Associated Press. June 23, 2003.

p. 257 If local residents educate themselves about zoning and school district policies, they can become advocates for the preservation of existing schools: Historic Neighborhood Schools in the Age of Sprawl: Why Johnny Can’t Walk to School. 2000. The National Trust for Historic Preservation.

p. 261 A similar although smaller dose-response effect of supermarkets on fruit and vegetable intake: Morland, K., et al. 2002. American Journal of Public Health 92(11):1761-1767.

p. 261 the Food Trust … mapped the locations of supermarket sales within the city and compared them with a map of mortality rates from diet-related diseases: The Food Trust. 2001. “Food for Every Child.” [Online]. Available at: http://www.thefoodtrust.org [accessed November, 12, 2004].

p. 263 The number of farmers markets in the United States increased by more than 75 percent: United States Department of Agriculture. [Online]. Available at: http://www.ams.usda.gov/farmersmarkets/FarmersMarketGrowth.htm [accessed November 12, 2004].

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