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| TCRP Research Report 248 |
Transit Cooperative Research Program Sponsored by the Federal Transit Administration |
Tactile Wayfinding in Transportation Settings for Travelers Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired
Volume 1: Conduct of Research
TCRP OVERSIGHT AND PROJECT SELECTION COMMISSION*
CHAIR
Jeanne Krieg
Eastern Contra Costa Transit Authority (retired)
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Jameson Auten
Lane Transit District
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Ryan I. Daniel
St. Cloud Metro Bus
IMMEDIATE PAST CHAIR
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Foothill Transit
MEMBERS
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New Mexico Department of Transportation
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Sound Transit
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Hemily and Associates
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East Texas Council of Governments
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HDR
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Connecticut Department of Transportation
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Memphis Area Transit Authority
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Valley Metro
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USSC Group
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Pinellas Suncoast Transit Authority (PSTA)
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Charlotte Area Transit System
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MTA Metro North Railroad, NY
Jeffrey Rosenberg
Amalgamated Transit Union
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Madison Metro Transit
Frank White, III
Kansas City Area Transportation Authority
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Nigel H.M. Wilson
MIT
EX OFFICIO MEMBERS
Victoria Sheehan
TRB
Paul P. Skoutelas
APTA
Jim Tymon
AASHTO
[Vacant]
FTA
Kristin White
FHWA
TOPS COMMISSION STAFF ADVISOR
Arthur L. Guzzetti
APTA
SECRETARY
Monique R. Evans
TRB
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2025 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE*
OFFICERS
CHAIR: Leslie S. Richards, General Manager, Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority (SEPTA), Philadelphia
VICE CHAIR: Joel M. Jundt, Secretary of Transportation, South Dakota Department of Transportation, Pierre
EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR: Victoria Sheehan, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC
MEMBERS
James F. Albaugh, President and CEO, The Boeing Company (retired), Scottsdale, AZ
Carlos M. Braceras, Executive Director, Utah Department of Transportation, Salt Lake City
Douglas C. Ceva, Vice President, Customer Lead Solutions, Prologis, Inc., Jupiter, FL
Nancy Daubenberger, Commissioner of Transportation, Minnesota Department of Transportation, St. Paul
Marie Therese Dominguez, Commissioner, New York State Department of Transportation, Albany
Garrett Eucalitto, Commissioner, Connecticut Department of Transportation, Newington
Andrew Fremier, Executive Director, Metropolitan Transportation Commission, San Francisco, CA
Martha Grabowski, Professor Emerita, Information Systems, Le Moyne College, Madden College of Business & Economics, Cazenovia, NY
Randell Iwasaki, President and CEO, Iwasaki Consulting Services, Walnut Creek, CA
Carol A. Lewis, Professor, Transportation Studies, Texas Southern University, Houston
Hani S. Mahmassani, W.A. Patterson Distinguished Chair in Transportation; Director, Transportation Center, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL
Scott C. Marler, Director, Iowa Department of Transportation, Ames
Ricardo Martinez, Adjunct Professor of Emergency Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Decatur, GA
Russell McMurry, Commissioner, Georgia Department of Transportation, Atlanta
Craig E. Philip, Research Professor and Director, VECTOR, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN
Steward T.A. Pickett, Distinguished Senior Scientist, Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY
Susan A. Shaheen, Professor and Co-Director, Transportation Sustainability Research Center, University of California, Berkeley
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Firas Ibrahim, Director, Office of Research, Development, and Technology, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Research and Technology (OST-R), Washington, DC
Jason Kelly, Deputy Commanding General for Civil Works and Emergency Operations, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC
Sandra Knight, President, WaterWonks, LLC, Washington, DC
Zahra “Niloo” Parvinashtiani, Engineer, Mobility Consultant Solutions, Iteris Inc., Fairfax, VA, and Chair, TRB Young Members Coordinating Council
Chris Rocheleau, Acting Administrator, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, DC
Gloria Shepherd, Acting Deputy Administrator, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC
Karl Simon, Director, Transportation and Climate Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
Paul P. Skoutelas, President and CEO, American Public Transportation Association, Washington, DC
Jim Tymon, Executive Director, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC
___________________
* Membership as of February 2025.
* Membership as of February 2025.
TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
TCRP RESEARCH REPORT 248
Tactile Wayfinding in Transportation Settings for Travelers Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired
Volume 1: Conduct of Research
Sarah Worth O’Brien
Alyson West
Bo Lan
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA HIGHWAY SAFETY RESEARCH CENTER
Chapel Hill, NC
Alan C. Scott
Billie “Beezy” Bentzen
Linda Myers
Jennifer Graham
ACCESSIBLE DESIGN FOR THE BLIND
Chapel Hill, NC
Bastian Schroeder
Lee Rodegerdts
Paul Ryus
Sarah Brown
KITTELSON & ASSOCIATES, INC.
Wilmington, NC
Mark Walker
WSP USA INC.
New York, NY
Subject Areas
Pedestrians and Bicyclists • Public Transportation • Safety and Human Factors
Research sponsored by the Federal Transit Administration in cooperation with the American Public Transportation Association
TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
The nation’s growth and the need to meet mobility, environmental, and energy objectives place demands on public transit systems. Current systems, some of which are old and in need of upgrading, must expand service area, increase service frequency, and improve efficiency to serve these demands. Research is necessary to solve operating problems, adapt appropriate new technologies from other industries, and introduce innovations into the transit industry. The Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) serves as one of the principal means by which the transit industry can develop innovative near-term solutions to meet demands placed on it.
The need for TCRP was originally identified in TRB Special Report 213—Research for Public Transit: New Directions, published in 1987 and based on a study sponsored by the Urban Mass Transportation Administration—now the Federal Transit Administration (FTA). A report by the American Public Transportation Association (APTA), Transportation 2000, also recognized the need for local, problem-solving research. TCRP, modeled after the successful National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), undertakes research and other technical activities in response to the needs of transit service providers. The scope of TCRP includes various transit research fields including planning, service configuration, equipment, facilities, operations, human resources, maintenance, policy, and administrative practices.
TCRP was established under FTA sponsorship in July 1992. Proposed by the U.S. Department of Transportation, TCRP was authorized as part of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA). On May 13, 1992, a memorandum agreement outlining TCRP operating procedures was executed by the three cooperating organizations: FTA; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, acting through the Transportation Research Board (TRB); and APTA. APTA is responsible for forming the independent governing board, designated as the TCRP Oversight and Project Selection (TOPS) Commission.
Research problem statements for TCRP are solicited periodically but may be submitted to TRB by anyone at any time. It is the responsibility of the TOPS Commission to formulate the research program by identifying the highest priority projects. As part of the evaluation, the TOPS Commission defines funding levels and expected products.
Once selected, each project is assigned to an expert panel appointed by TRB. The panels prepare project statements (requests for proposals), select contractors, and provide technical guidance and counsel throughout the life of the project. The process for developing research problem statements and selecting research agencies has been used by TRB in managing cooperative research programs since 1962. As in other TRB activities, TCRP project panels serve voluntarily without compensation.
Because research cannot have the desired effect if products fail to reach the intended audience, special emphasis is placed on disseminating TCRP results to the intended users of the research: transit agencies, service providers, and suppliers. TRB provides a series of research reports, syntheses of transit practice, and other supporting material developed by TCRP research. APTA will arrange for workshops, training aids, field visits, and other activities to ensure that results are implemented by urban and rural transit industry practitioners.
TCRP provides a forum where transit agencies can cooperatively address common operational problems. TCRP results support and complement other ongoing transit research and training programs.
TCRP RESEARCH REPORT 248, VOLUME 1
Project B-46
ISSN 2572-3782
ISBN 978-0-309-71007-7
Digital Object Identifier: 10.17226/27777
© 2025 by the National Academy of Sciences. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and the graphical logo are trademarks of the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
COPYRIGHT INFORMATION
Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously published or copyrighted material used herein.
Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, APTA, FAA, FHWA, FTA, GHSA, or NHTSA endorsement of a particular product, method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this document for educational and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate acknowledgment of the source of any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission from CRP.
NOTICE
The research report was reviewed by the technical panel and accepted for publication according to procedures established and overseen by the Transportation Research Board and approved by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.
The opinions and conclusions expressed or implied in this report are those of the researchers who performed the research and are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; or the program sponsors.
The Transportation Research Board does not develop, issue, or publish standards or specifications. The Transportation Research Board manages applied research projects which provide the scientific foundation that may be used by Transportation Research Board sponsors, industry associations, or other organizations as the basis for revised practices, procedures, or specifications.
The Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; and the sponsors of the Transit Cooperative Research Program do not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers’ names or logos appear herein solely because they are considered essential to the object of the report.
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The Transportation Research Board is one of seven major program divisions of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. The mission of the Transportation Research Board is to mobilize expertise, experience, and knowledge to anticipate and solve complex transportation-related challenges. The Board’s varied activities annually engage about 8,500 engineers, scientists, and other transportation researchers and practitioners from the public and private sectors and academia, all of whom contribute their expertise in the public interest. The program is supported by state departments of transportation, federal agencies including the component administrations of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and other organizations and individuals interested in the development of transportation.
Learn more about the Transportation Research Board at www.TRB.org.
COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS
CRP STAFF FOR TCRP RESEARCH REPORT 248, VOLUME 1
Monique R. Evans, Director, Cooperative Research Programs
Waseem Dekelbab, Deputy Director, Cooperative Research Programs
Gwen Chisholm Smith, Manager, Transit Cooperative Research Program
Mariela Garcia-Colberg, Senior Program Officer
Stephanie L. Campbell-Chamberlain, Senior Program Assistant
Natalie Barnes, Director of Publications
Heather DiAngelis, Associate Director of Publications
Claire Aelion-Moss, Editor
TCRP PROJECT B-46 PANEL
Field of Service Configuration
Katharine M. Hunter-Zaworski, K. M. Hunter-Zaworski, LLC, Corvallis, OR (Chair)
Melissa A. Anderson, FHWA, Riverdale Park, MD
Dennis M. Cannon, Synergy LLC, Washington, DC
Rachel Carpenter, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento
Jessica DeVille, Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development, Baton Rouge
Scott A. Engel, South Uptown Neighborhood Association, Minneapolis, MN
Lukas Franck, The Seeing Eye, Inc., Morristown, NJ
Svetlana Grechka, Regional Transportation District (Denver), CO
Daniel G. Levy, DanTec Associates, San Diego, CA
Kathleen M. McCauley, Massachusetts Port Authority, East Boston
Milagros Ortiz, Iowa Department of Transportation, Ames
Kenneth G. Rodgers, Minnesota Department of Transportation, Minneapolis
Elizabeth Hilton, FHWA Liaison
Peter Butler, FTA Liaison
Andrew Golba, FTA Liaison
Lynette Little, FTA Liaison
Zachary Smith, APTA Liaison
Scott J. Windley, U.S. Access Board Liaison
FOREWORD
By Mariela Garcia-Colberg
Staff Officer
Transportation Research Board
This publication describes the technical specifications for selection, usability, installation, and maintenance of tactile walking surface indicators (TWSIs) in multimodal environments. The report and guide will be of immediate use to state, local, and tribal agencies, including rail, transit, and highway agencies; public works departments; ferries; airports; parks and recreation departments; and other entities seeking to provide wayfinding cues to improve the accessibility of their networks.
TWSIs typically comprise attention fields made up of truncated domes—referred to in the United States as detectable warning surfaces (DWSs)—and guiding patterns made up of raised parallel bars. The truncated domes and guiding patterns are combined to define travel paths in pedestrian areas, including public rights-of-way and multimodal transportation facilities. Many countries use TWSIs extensively, and some have adopted standards requiring them, to aid wayfinding for visually impaired travelers.
In the United States, tactile guiding patterns may solve wayfinding problems for visually impaired travelers where there are insufficient cues in the built environment to enable effective wayfinding. While most of these guiding pattern installations are raised bar surfaces, there is significant variation in the installation and materials, including the width and height (detectability) of the guiding pattern and where it is located. Consistency in cues for wayfinding is critical to blind and visually impaired travelers. It is important for them to understand the message of such cues because they are unable to use many other cues available to travelers with unimpaired vision.
The objective of TCRP Project B-46 was to produce guidance for transportation planners, engineers, and orientation and mobility specialists, which will provide consistency in the design, installation, and usability of TWSIs in multimodal transportation in the United States. The report is organized into two volumes. TCRP Research Report 248: Tactile Wayfinding in Transportation Settings for Travelers Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired, Volume 1: Conduct of Research contains an overview of previous research, standards and practices, the research approach, three different human factor experiments conducted, the findings and conclusions, and future suggested research. TCRP Research Report 248: Tactile Wayfinding in Transportation Settings for Travelers Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired, Volume 2: Guide highlights the need for wayfinding and discusses tactile wayfinding applications, implementations, and postimplementation activities.
AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research effort was made possible through the contributions of many people and organizations. Sarah Worth O’Brien of the University of North Carolina HSRC served as principal investigator. She was assisted by researchers Alyson West and Bo Lan at HSRC. HSRC worked closely with subcontractors at Accessible Design for the Blind, LLC, Kittelson & Associates, Inc., and WSP. Alan Scott, PhD; Billie “Beezy” Bentzen, PhD, COMS; Linda Myers, COMS; and Jennifer Graham, COMS, from ADB served as our accessibility subject-matter experts and conducted the experiments and made other significant contributions throughout the project. Researchers at KAI were Bastian Schroeder, PhD, Lee Rodegerdts, Paul Ryus, and Sarah Brown. Mark Walker with WSP served as our transit subject matter expert.
Early in the project, Daniel Carter of the North Carolina DOT (formerly of HSRC) guided the development of our initial work plan and kicked off the project as its initial principal investigator. He also established a relationship with UNC Facilities that led to us borrowing the loading bay parking lot for the Homestead Road warehouse for Experiment 1. We also thank the UNC School of Government for coordinating with us to use their parking deck for Experiment 2.
Ten local agencies shared information with the research team via interviews which informed our understanding of the state of the practice of TWSIs in the United States. We thank BART, CDOT, Florida DOT, LA Metro, NYC DOT, NYC MTA, San Francisco Public Works, Seattle DOT, Sound Transit, and WMATA for their time. We also thank the City of Charlotte, NC, CATS, and the Spectrum Center for permitting us access to temporarily install TWSIs within their public rights-of-way to conduct Experiment 3. In particular, we recognize the assistance from Angela Berry, formerly of Charlotte DOT, in finding potential sites and introducing us to other key local players; Tim Roberts with Spectrum Center and Kathleen Cishek with the City of Charlotte for keeping us posted on events happening at the Center during our data collection window; and Chad Hagans and Brian Horton with CATS to give us permission to temporarily install TWSIs within the Charlotte Transportation Center, a Lynx light-rail station, and a streetcar platform.
ADA Solutions, LLC gifted a portion of the polymer panel materials used to conduct this research, and PSS Innovations donated the RoadQuake 2 used as trapezoidal tactile warning delineator in Experiment 3. The authors express gratitude to HSRC staff or students Dan Gelinne, Malachiah Harrington, Cheng Ma, Elizabeth Mitchell, and Kristin Podsiad for assisting in installing and/or removing TWSIs across the three experiments.
It is an understatement to say that, without the participants who were willing to take part, this research would not have been possible. We are truly thankful for them giving us their time and their opinions, and we appreciate Jack Mitchell, COMS, CVRT, of Greensboro Industries of the Blind, and Tracey Peterson, MA, COMS, of NC Division of Services for the Blind, for serving as our recruiters.
Finally, the authors recognize the significant contributions of Janet Barlow, who passed away in 2021 while working on this project. She was a certified orientation and mobility specialist who led ADB along with Dr. Bentzen for more than 15 years and engaged in research to make the built environment more accessible to people with disabilities. This report is dedicated to the memory of Janet, whose influence on the transportation field continues to shape the world for the better.
CONTENTS
Chapter 2 Overview of Previous Research, Standards, and State of the Practice
Detectability and Discriminability of TWDs
Considerations for People with Mobility Impairments
Orientation of TDIs for Different Applications
Chapter 4 Experiment 1: Detection and Identification Trials in a Controlled Environment
Chapter 5 Experiment 2: Navigating TWSIs in a Controlled Environment
Chapter 6 Experiment 3: Using and Navigating TWSIs in a Natural Environment
TWSI Configurations by Test Site and Task
Chapter 7 Conclusions and Suggested Research
Discriminable Geometry of Raised Elements
Delineating Sidewalk-Level Bike Lanes
Appendix B State of the Practice of Guidance Surfaces in the United States
