6

Emerging Technologies and Approaches

Well plugging and abandonment technology is undergoing a rapid evolution driven by the need for safer, more cost-effective, and environmentally sustainable methods to seal aging oil and gas wells. However, as this chapter discusses, applying new technologies to plug orphan wells remains challenging. The chapter will also describe innovations related to locating orphan wells, emerging pre-plugging geologic and wellbore assessment practices, advancements in plugging materials, alternatives to cement, and innovative verification and monitoring technologies.

CHALLENGES TO APPLYING NEW TECHNOLOGIES

New materials, technologies, and practices for plugging orphan wells present a challenge for state regulators and plugging and abandonment companies because no standards yet exist for assessing the validity of advances in these areas.¹ While industry professionals recognize the potential benefits of new technologies, widespread adoption is hampered by a complex network of financial, institutional, regulatory, and public perception barriers. Many of these innovations are being developed in other sectors of oil and gas (e.g., offshore) and have not yet been applied to orphan wells. A notable regulatory lag exists; standards have not kept pace with technological advancements, creating a paradox where stakeholders may favor the known costs of traditional methods over the perceived risks of unapproved solutions. Additionally, the committee observes the majority of technology development is driven by private companies that tend not to publish their results and that are primarily incentivized by potential for profit. For example, some representatives from private industry were hesitant to speak with the

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¹ Discussion among state representatives of the Interstate Oil & Gas Compact Commission, public information-gathering session, May 21–22, 2025.

committee about technology development because of concerns about discussing proprietary information in a public information-gathering session.

The committee’s experiences and range of perspectives informed multiple conversations about accelerating technology transfer. Accelerating transfer requires a collaborative effort from all stakeholders—operators, regulators, technology startups, and technical experts—to establish performance-based standards, foster data-driven pilots, and invest in a robust commercialization process. Ultimately, the future of well decommissioning may be defined not by a single material or technology advancement but by a strategic, multifaceted approach that leverages the right technology for the right application, transforming an end-of-life obligation into a strategic opportunity for operational efficiency, cost reduction, and enhanced environmental stewardship.

GEOLOGIC AND WELLBORE CONDITIONS ASSESSMENT

General plugging and abandonment design and guidance aim to isolate specific zones in the formation with cement (King 2025); a geologic assessment is usually needed to identify these zones. In addition, orphan wells can contain both hydrocarbon-bearing formations and groundwater aquifers. Even though state regulatory agencies may designate specific zones that need to be plugged, a thorough geologic assessment is important to understand where to place the plugs and ensure that requirements are met.

Various solutions have been proposed to properly assess downhole conditions and wellbore integrity for plugging. The following section discusses the technologies that can assist with geologic assessment, well preparation, and well assessment, including artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) approaches.

Geologic Assessment Data

The geologic assessment practices for plugging a well differ substantially from those used in exploration because of their contrasting goals. Exploration programs are focused on finding and quantifying commercially viable hydrocarbons, while plugging operations aim to permanently seal a well that has already been drilled. Additional assessment methods, including airborne surveys, can be used to augment the basic geologic data associated with orphan wells (see Box 6-1).

Well Preparation for Plugging and Abandonment

Previous chapters have discussed at length the U.S. legacy of orphan wells and the unpredictability inherent in plugging them, especially those engineered with older methods. As noted in earlier chapters, operators can find unexpected objects or materials downhole; removing them can increase cost and risk (Simmers et al. 2024). Downhole tools that prepare orphan wells for plugging are being developed actively. For example, Vrålstad et al. (2019) noted developments in section milling that include improving cutter and milling blade technologies (Scanlon et al. 2011; Stowe and Ponder 2011), developing plasma-based tools (Gajdos et al. 2015) and tools for dual string section

milling (Deshpande et al. 2016; McTiffen et al. 2017), and moving toward single instead of dual trips to save rig time (Hogg et al. 2014). However, the committee notes that smaller companies and those primarily performing plugging operations may develop one-of-a-kind tools for specific issues that arise when retrieving objects or cleaning out a well. Such uncertainty has led to ingenuity, but these specialized tools are not widely produced or shared across companies, and knowledge of them is largely anecdotal.

Emerging Wellbore Assessment Technologies

The changing state of technology is enabling next-generation capability in identifying and assessing wellbore conditions for orphan and abandoned wells. For example, the advent of AI and ML is enabling new ways to extract information, especially from historical data, to unlock details that were previously unavailable or unrecognizable.

AI and ML can be used to extract pertinent details about orphan and abandoned wells, such as the drilling details from historical records (e.g., wellbore casing, cement used). This could allow for assembling detailed records, such as well summaries and wellbore schematics, that could enable more efficient plugging planning and more robust risk profiles that could be used to identify wells with higher potential for wellbore integrity and leakage issues (see Chapter 4). AI models can also be trained to digitize historical maps and documents to recognize symbols that indicate a well’s location, even if those records are incomplete or inaccurate. In one study, researchers used an AI algorithm to scour four counties of interest that had substantial early oil production (Los Angeles and Kern counties in California and Osage and Oklahoma counties in Oklahoma) and found 1,301 potential undocumented orphan wells (Ciulla et al. 2024).

ML can be applied to merge and analyze data from magnetometer, lidar, and gas sensors, enabling much greater accuracy in pinpointing well locations compared with using a single sensor. The multi-laboratory Consortium Advancing Technology for Assessment of Lost Oil and Gas Wells (CATALOG) has combined these sensing techniques and AI to detect unmarked orphan and abandoned wells (Price 2025). Field verification, such as via satellite imagery or in-person field teams with sensors, is needed to ensure the output is accurate before taking further action.

BARRIER AND PLUG TECHNOLOGIES

Cement is the primary material barrier used in isolating and permanently plugging wells. The American Petroleum Institute Subcommittee 10 on Well Cements developed standards and recommendations for cement preparation procedures (API n.d.). Cement is used successfully in well completions and plugging across the world, which will likely continue to some degree because of its specialized properties and ability to be pumped for placement, hydrate to a solid material, and remain stable over time.

Plugging and abandonment materials expert Nicolas Droger shared some of the limitations of cement and benefits of additives and alternative materials in a July 2025 public information-gathering session. With exposure to corrosive environments, cement

can degrade in a variety of ways. During the curing process, it can shrink, increasing the potential for formation of micro-cracks and leaks. When subjected to fluctuating temperatures, pressures, or chemicals such as carbon dioxide or acidic fluids, cement can crack or degrade (Droger 2025). Research and development on plugging and abandonment materials has shown that cement is receptive to certain additives that help to counteract some of its vulnerabilities (Aslani et al. 2022; Tao et al. 2021).

Use of cement formulations containing additives is a standard industry practice in well completions for controlling gas migration (Tao et al. 2021). Such additives are used in plugging and abandonment, but with a lack of widespread data collection on plugging details, it is not known how many wells contain them or how effective they are in ensuring permanent plugging and isolation. Chapter 3 mentions additives and fluids that are commonly used to enhance cement performance (e.g., retarders, silica flour, latex, resins), but additives remain an area of active research.

After a well has been plugged, issues may develop that require remediation to stop leakage. This can include remediation of the barrier and/or plug material or removing the existing plug and designing a different approach. Cement remediation is focused on repairing channels, voids, and micro-annuli to prevent fluid leakage along cement wellbores.

Local casing expansion involves mechanical manipulation (deformation) of casing that enlarges the casing pipe’s diameter, thereby compressing the surrounding cement; closing fractures, micro-annuli, or other leakage points; and improving zonal isolation (Lackey et al. 2026). The scientific literature and presentations at industry conferences have highlighted multiple successful laboratory tests and field trials using local casing expansion to remedy fluid migration behind casing (e.g., Beltrán-Jiménez et al. 2022; Lackey et al. 2026; Maltugelov et al. 2025; Wolterbeek 2026; Wolterbeek et al. 2021). Perhaps its greatest advantage is that local casing expansion can be employed via wireline and does not require a rig or other surface equipment at the well site; this lowers risk, saves time and improves cost-effectiveness, and reduces the operational footprint (Beltrán-Jiménez et al. 2022; Wolterbeek et al. 2021). It remains to be seen how durable these repairs will be (Wolterbeek 2026).

Specialized cement slurries can contain additives or enhancing materials that swell, expand, or provide added elasticity. For example, bentonite is an absorbent swelling clay consisting mostly of montmorillonite (a type of smectite) that demonstrates superior sealing ability because it will swell and expand during hydration (Dehn and McNutt 2015). Compressed bentonite pellets can expand by 250 percent (NASEM 2025), forming a self-healing plug. There has been limited field use of bentonite for plugging oil and gas wells, including in California and field trials in Queensland, Australia (Towler et al. 2020).

Alternatively, flexible or ductile cement systems use advanced cement materials engineered to overcome the brittle nature of conventional concrete and cement, providing high tensile strength, elasticity, and the ability to withstand deformation without cracking. These specialized slurries are used for casing and zonal isolation, designed to manage high stress in downhole environments. Flexible or ductile cement systems are used in challenging wells prone to thermal or pressure cycles—such as high-pressure,

high-temperature wells—to prevent micro-annuli, gas migration, and casing failure (Jafariesfad et al. 2017).

Smart gels, named for their ability to respond to a stimulus, have been studied and used extensively. When exposed to temperature, pH, electric, acoustic, and/or other stimulants, they take in fluid and swell to many times their initial size to fill a void in casings, barriers, or other parts of the wellbore. This process is highly controllable and reversible (Willis 2018). Smart gels are stable, with well-defined structure due to cross-linking in the material, but they vary in density and therefore strength. The level of cross-linkage can be tailored (Kalia 2016). Research continues to examine how factors such as carbon dioxide, salinity, mineralogy, temperature, and others impact smart gel performance (Afolabi et al. 2025).

While not necessarily novel or emerging, biomineralization has not yet been widely deployed in the subsurface for well applications. Biomineralization utilizes microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (Phillips et al. 2013); these fluids are low in viscosity and can fill very small leakage pathways, but their use requires access to the wellbore. Similarly, the oil and gas industry uses nano- or micro-particle sealants to seal micro-fractures, pores, and micro-annuli in shale formations and cement sheaths. Often used as additives in drilling fluids or cement slurries, they provide superior sealing performance, enhance wellbore stability, prevent fluid invasion into sensitive formations, and facilitate enhanced oil recovery (Yang et al. 2019).

EMERGING ALTERNATIVES TO CEMENT AND ADVANCED MATERIALS

As discussed, the weaknesses of cement and its high carbon footprint have spurred research and development of alternative, advanced materials. Review papers describe and evaluate some of these materials (Fernandez et al. 2021; Tao et al. 2021), but most that offer promise have not been tested beyond laboratories, making their approval for common use in the field challenging.

Cement and cement binder alternatives that reduce carbon dioxide emissions are being developed along with new cement formulations that substitute portions of the cement with other materials (e.g., limestone) to reduce the carbon footprint. For example, geopolymers are cementitious binders created by aluminosilicates (e.g., fly ash, kaolin clays) reacting with alkali polysilicates (Davidovits 1991). Compared with cement, geopolymers can provide better resistance to corrosion, lower permeability, less shrinkage, and self-healing properties (Guo et al. 2025). However, while geopolymers have been used broadly in the construction industry, they have not yet been applied at scale in the petroleum industry (Abdelaal et al. 2024; Adjei et al. 2022). Just as cement mixtures are tailored to the well site environment, geopolymers allow for a range of “recipes” that address different contexts. However, this flexibility increases complexity in application. One of the main limitations of geopolymers’ broader use is that they thicken and set quickly, thereby inhibiting pumpability (e.g., Guo et al. 2025). This is an area of current research. Another challenge is susceptibility to efflorescence, which is a key cause of deterioration. While increasing the curing temperature of geopolymers

decreases efflorescence and improves compressive strength, the trade-off is decreased setting time (Chukwuemeka et al. 2023; Simão et al. 2021). Incorporating weighting materials into geopolymers to enhance performance in oil and gas wells is another new area of inquiry (Abdelaal et al. 2024).

Similar materials, such as alkaline-activated cements, are binders produced by activating industrial by-products, such as ground-granulated blast-furnace slag and fly ash. Compared with ordinary Portland cement, they typically form low-calcium C-(N)-A-S-H–type gels with dense pore structures that can provide low permeability, adequate mechanical strength, and improved resistance to chloride and sulfate ingress and some acid environments (Arbi et al. 2016; Gökçe 2024; Mohamed 2019; Wang et al. 2020). Because they do not require high-temperature clinker production, life cycle assessments generally find that they achieve comparable strength with substantially lower life cycle carbon dioxide emissions than Portland cement (Alhassan et al. 2023; Alsalman et al. 2021; Lolli and Kurtis 2021). For well plugging, these durability and environmental characteristics make alkaline-activated cements conceptually attractive for aggressive produced waters, carbon dioxide–rich environments, and other corrosive conditions. Recent laboratory studies on alkali-activated geopolymers formulated for wells report low permeabilities and promising self-healing behavior after cracking (Ross et al. 2022; Zheng et al. 2024).

Some natural or naturally occurring in situ materials are also being explored. Geologically activated cement is a geologically inspired, self-sealing, cement-free plugging material. It takes advantage of the naturally harsh environment (acidic, high temperature, high pressure) found in some hydrocarbon wells to accelerate hydration and carbonation of ultramafic materials placed in the wellbore, which then form a solid, rock-like material. Lu et al. (2023) provided proof-of-concept, demonstrating geologically activated cement to be self-sealing with permeability decreasing over time comparable to that of many natural sandstone formations. Furthermore, it is expected to be stable and self-healing over geological timescales and natural changes in subsurface conditions.

Using shale as a barrier is not new in plugging and abandonment practices, but research continues to enhance that use. NORSOK (2024) recognizes that it can serve as a suitable barrier in wells. Shale can move and deform, or “creep,” to create barriers and close annuli naturally over time, but this process can also be manipulated through changes in pressure, temperature, and/or the use of chemicals to expedite the formation of a barrier (Arjomand et al. 2026). Using shale as a barrier can save a significant amount of money and effort on well plugging and abandonment (van Oort et al. 2022). However, not all shale is appropriate for this use. Characteristics that influence its behavior include porosity, mineralogy (e.g., clay or quartz content), strength, and ductility. Research continues to shed light on how shale behaves in plugging and abandonment (Fjær et al. 2023; Huddlestone-Holmes et al. 2022). Some of the newest work in this area has been developing tools such as web apps that can help locate shale intervals and identify the best candidates for barrier formation (e.g., Mejia et al. 2025).

Alternative materials, some of which feature self-healing capabilities, can create seals along the wellbore through chemical reactions similar to cement. A few have been developed and used commercially but are rarely used in plugging and abandonment.

Resins, though used in some well operations, would require additional research and development for use in plugging and abandonment (Kamali et al. 2021). Advantageous properties of resins include mechanical strength and adhesion, minimal shrinkage, and ability to be used in challenging contexts, such as corrosive or high-temperature environments. However, they are expensive, are not widely available, and can negatively impact the environment (Droger 2025).

Bismuth-based alloys, such as bismuth-tin, bismuth-tin-antimony, or bismuth-silver, show promise as a substitute for cement in plugging operations (Hmadeh et al. 2024a). The eutectic property of these alloys makes it easier to place the plug properly, and bismuth’s expansion during solidification drastically improves the likelihood of a tight seal (Manataki et al. 2024). Because of the superiority of the seal, shorter plugs can be used, providing cost savings (Hmadeh et al. 2024a). However, bismuth-based plugs are so novel that comprehensive standards have not been established, long-term durability is unclear, and the full range of performance is not yet known. Potential problems are also not fully understood. For example, it is unclear to what degree the expansion of bismuth might pose a threat in terms of cracking cement behind the casing or other components of the wellbore (Hmadeh et al. 2024b; Manataki et al. 2024).

Exothermic alloy and thermal barrier concepts in the oil and gas industry are advanced materials technologies designed to manage extreme temperatures and pressures, primarily in well construction, production, and abandonment. Exothermic alloy involves thermite-based reactions that generate extreme heat to melt, fuse, and seal casing, cement, and surrounding rock, avoiding the need for conventional (often failing) Portland cement (Rosnes et al. 2024). Thermal barrier coatings are advanced, multilayered material systems applied to metal components that operate in high-temperature, corrosive environments, creating permanent, non-leaking seals in old wells.

NOVEL CONCEPTS AND ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES

Combining different approaches could alleviate drawbacks encountered with a given material or technique. A successful approach may include materials and barriers tailored and optimized to specific conditions in the wellbore and local geology. For example, standard practice and current recommendations are to place “impermeable” barriers over the production zones in the formation and other protected zones (Droger 2025). Recent research demonstrates that low-permeability cement can lead to internal tensile stress and increased risk of damage (Lu and Bunger 2023); it is impossible to drain excess pore pressure faster than it builds up, which may be critical in regions where plugged wells are subjected to sudden pressures due to other subsurface activities (Smye 2025). The implication is that lower permeability is not always the best target for cement and barrier design; instead, matching permeability to the surrounding rock would reduce damage to the plug from surrounding pressure buildup and minimize failure risk.

Novel concepts are still being developed and tested that can simultaneously dispose of waste materials and provide offset use of cement in the well. One such concept utilizes end-of-life blades from wind turbines, which currently present a challenge for

disposal because of chemicals in the blades that can be leached into groundwater when disposed of in a landfill (Bulińska et al. 2024; Carpenter 2023; Ikeocha and Ershaghi 2023; Rucka and Kurpińska 2025). The wind turbine blades would be pulverized at the end of their usable life and mixed into cement used in plugging. Additional research and development are needed before this concept can be used in plugging and abandonment.

It is a challenge to study and to test new materials and methods in the subsurface; specialized laboratories and experimental setups are needed to fully understand and test new technologies. These specialized research facilities and resources are mostly one of a kind (Sharifi 2023). Computational modeling and simulation complement laboratory approaches, especially when studying phenomena that cannot be simulated in a lab (Garcia et al. 2025). For example, the placement of wellbore plugging materials can be simulated under different conditions to identify the properties that impact performance the most (Garcia et al. 2023). Computational modeling supports wider technology sharing of tools and simulations, especially where experiments or instruments are not available or affordable for widespread use. One such workflow includes complex computational modeling, computationally intense simulations, ML to reduce computation time, identification of the uncertainties in the process, and optimization of complex systems. Early results with testing and simulations indicate that cement placement in the required/targeted zones in the formation and the performance properties of the plugging materials can be optimized (Garcia et al. 2026).

COLLABORATIVE PARTNERSHIPS TO ADVANCE PLUGGING TECHNOLOGIES

Additional technologies are being sought as part of an entrepreneurial effort within industry to find and remediate orphan and abandoned wells based on risk factors. For example, Energy Transition Norway (n.d.) has engaged the Go Radical P&A to “deliver radically new solutions to enable a step change reduction (>50%) in the environmental footprint and cost to perform the plugging of oil and gas wells worldwide, while ensuring the prevention of longer-term leakage from these abandoned wells.” The focus is on wellbore access techniques, barrier and plugging solutions, and barrier placement and verification techniques. Another example is the Petroleum Technology Alliance of Canada, which hosts conferences (e.g., 2024 Orphan and Idle Wells Canada Conference) and supports collaborative initiatives to find innovative solutions for well management, plugging, and reclamation (Orphan and Idle Wells Canada 2024).

Other groups are more focused on ensuring that current wells are properly plugged and abandoned, thus minimizing the potential for issues. The Danish Offshore Technology Centre (DOTC n.d.) researches how to safely and cost-effectively abandon wells in the Danish North Sea by developing new technologies (e.g., advanced cement, resin-based plugs) and creating solutions for challenges such as scale buildup. The Centre of Decommissioning Australia (CODA 2026) likewise seeks to create a collaborative and sustainable approach to decommissioning Australia’s aging oil and gas infrastructure. See Box 6-2 for more examples.

Citizen scientists collect valuable data using a variety of low-cost methods and accessible tools, such as specialized apps or reporting platforms, and report observations to scientific and regulatory bodies. They can submit information such as suspected well locations and emissions or other environmental impacts from wells, which can then be used to locate wells, verify the presence of leaks, and monitor conditions over time. Their data can be integrated with advanced mapping, remote sensing, and AI-driven analysis tools to create a more comprehensive picture of the orphan well problem and guide mitigation efforts (de Smet et al. 2023; Hammack et al. 2020; Nikulin et al. 2022).

Researchers and citizen scientists are using smartphones and drones to contribute to the endeavor. Smartphone apps can be used to locate wells with tools such as built-in magnetometers to detect magnetic signatures, which are especially useful for finding undocumented wells (Saneiyan and Mansourian 2023). The drones can be flown at low altitudes, collecting magnetic readings as they go. Box 6-3 describes just three of many partnerships involving citizen science.

WORKFORCE DEVELOPMENT IN PLUGGING AND ABANDONMENT

The oil and gas industry, in general, is facing a growing skills shortage due to (1) an aging workforce; (2) the energy transition, as many skilled workers are shifting toward the renewables sector, which is perceived to have better long-term job prospects; and (3) low appeal to younger generations—a survey in 2017 reportedly found that 62 percent of young professionals found the oil and gas industry unappealing, preferring industries seen as more sustainable or technology focused (IEA 2025; PR Newswire 2017). Over 60 percent of energy companies report labor shortages, struggling to fill technical roles such as engineers and operators (IEA 2025).

The committee members’ range and depth of experience allowed them to discuss at length the current context and need for workforce training. Given the recent increase in plugging and abandonment of orphan (and other) wells, demand has also increased for well plugging services. Furthermore, changes in regulations and improved understanding of the work and expertise needed to achieve effective, sustainable barriers underscore the importance of comparable workforce development, apprenticeship,

and training opportunities. Universities, technical schools, industry associations, and chambers of commerce all have a role in articulating future employment prospects in the oil and natural gas industry. Prospective students and professionals need to see the full scope of career possibilities involved in supporting oil and gas development and decommissioning and improving public health and safety and environmental outcomes.

Working with orphan wells requires a highly specialized, interdisciplinary skill set combining traditional oilfield engineering with environmental science, remote sensing, and historical research to locate, characterize, and safely plug abandoned infrastructure. But depending on the training program, different topics may be more or less emphasized, leading to skills gaps for some in the oilfield service industry. In addition, workers not only need a strong grasp of the basics (e.g., history of wellbore development, plugging and abandonment economics, cementing basics, an understanding of best practices relative to regulatory requirements) but will also need to navigate new technologies, including AI applications. Some states, such as Pennsylvania and California, have pursued workforce development activities specifically related to plugging and remediation (CWDB n.d.; PADEP 2024). Because orphan well plugging frequently requires navigating degraded or unknown conditions, which are often precarious, on-the-job training is essential for worker safety and quality, and for installing lasting plugs. While anyone can be trained for the job, the most likely candidates are already in the oilfield service industries or have some kind of outdoor work experience. Given federal and state orphan well plugging funding and increased enforcement of plugging requirements for solvent operators of non-productive wells, the work is likely to be steady for decades, justifying the time and money spent on apprenticeship programs. Potential models for skills development and training can include coordination between chambers of commerce, workforce development programs at private institutions and local technical schools, existing plugging companies, and relevant overseeing agencies. Applicants can be assigned to a combination of coursework and field experience on job sites.

Formal programs or apprenticeships ensure that the workforce is properly trained and learns how to implement new technologies that improve the long-term integrity of plugs. Programs can be tailored for roles such as plugging design engineers, site supervisors, rig hands, and plugging and remediation contractors. Additionally, programs for training agency field inspectors are needed to ensure sufficient regulatory capacity to oversee plugging. States may also consider certification programs to ensure quality and consistency. Additional staff capacity may be needed for state, Tribal, and federal orphan well programs to properly oversee well plugging projects, including inspection staff to witness critical operations.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusion 6-1: It is challenging to test new technologies under subsurface and laboratory conditions that match local geologic factors. This can impact both commercial and regulatory decision-making around their use. Other countries have successful collaborations focused on new technologies and testing; these can provide exemplars for the United States.

Recommendation 6-1: The Orphaned Wells Program Office, in collaboration with the Department of Energy and other relevant federal agencies, state and Tribal agencies, academia, and industry, should explore a mechanism to share information among themselves for the purpose of demonstrating the effectiveness of new and evolving technology to improve well plugging practices, materials, and monitoring. This may be a common system for collecting and sharing qualification test results or a more formal testing program.

Conclusion 6-2: There is a workforce readiness gap in plugging and remediation. The need for workers skilled in oil, natural gas, and geothermal well servicing, including well plugging and abandonment, will continue to grow for the foreseeable future. Universities, technical schools, industry associations, and chambers of commerce all play roles in generating interest among prospective students in this field and bolstering training mechanisms to prepare the workforce.

Recommendation 6-2: Universities, technical schools, apprenticeship programs, and states should work toward implementing well plugging and abandonment-specific training and certification programs. These programs should include curricula that prepare current students for using new technologies such as artificial intelligence, provide ways for those currently in the workforce to access upskilling or reskilling, and provide certifications recognized by the industry.