11

References

Adcock, F., D. Anderson, and P. Rosson. 2015. The economic impacts of immigrant labor on U.S. dairy farms. National Milk Producers Federation. https://www.nmpf.org/wpcontent/uploads//immigration-survey-090915.pdf (accessed January 5, 2026).

Alyafei, A., and R. Easton-Carr. 2024. The health belief model of behavior change. Treasue Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ (accessed January 5, 2026).

Andrews, A. S., J. R. Powers, Jr., J. K. Cichowicz, C. C. Coffey, M. L. Fries, P. L. Yorio, and M. M. D’Alessandro. 2021. Respiratory protection in a time of crisis: NIOSH testing of international respiratory protective devices for emergency use. Health Security 19(4):379–385.

Anger, W. K., T. Bodner, D. A. Hurtado, R. Olson, K. Parker, A. Rameshbabu, D. S. Rohlman, W. Wan, and B. Wipfli. 2019. Effectiveness of Total Worker Health interventions. In Total Worker Health, edited by H. L. Hudson, J. A. S. Nigam, S. L. Sauter, L. C. Chosewood, A. L. Schill, and J. Howard: American Psychological Association. Pp 61–89.

Baker, A. L., B. Arruda, M. V. Palmer, P. Boggiatto, K. Sarlo Davila, A. Buckley, G. Ciacci Zanella, C. A. Snyder, T. K. Anderson, C. R. Hutter, T. Q. Nguyen, A. Markin, K. Lantz, E. A. Posey, M. Kim Torchetti, S. Robbe-Austerman, D. R. Magstadt, and P. J. Gorden. 2025. Dairy cows inoculated with highly pathogenic avian influenza virus H5N1. Nature 637(8047):913–920.

Bezek, L. B., J. Pan, C. Harb, C. E. Zawaski, B. Molla, J. R. Kubalak, L. C. Marr, and C. B. Williams. 2021. Additively manufactured respirators: Quantifying particle transmission and identifying system-level challenges for improving filtration efficiency. Journal of Manufacturing Systems 60(1878-6642):762–773.

Campbell, A. J., K. Brizuela, and S. S. Lakdawala. 2025a. mGem: Transmission and exposure risks of dairy cow H5N1 influenza virus. mBio 16(3):e0294424.

Campbell, A. J., M. Shephard, A. P. Paulos, M. Pauly, M. Vu, C. Stenkamp-Strahm, K. Bush-field, B. Hunter-Binns, O. Sablon, E. E. Bendall, W. J. Fitzimmons, K. Brizuela, G. Quirk, N. Kumar, B. McCluskey, N. Shetty, L. C. Marr, J. J. Guthmiller, K. Abernathy, A. S. Lauring, B. T. Melody, M. Wolfe, J. Lombard, and S. S. Lakdawala. 2025b. Surveillance on California dairy farms reveals multiple sources of H5N1 transmission. bioRxiv 2025. [Preprint] https://doi.org/10.1101/2025.07.31.666798 (accessed January 5, 2026).

Chea, P. H., B. Pushpawela, R. X. Ward, and R. C. Flagan. 2024. Is double masking even worthwhile? Aerosol Science and Technology 58(9):965–977.

Damdinjav, B., S. Raveendran, L. Mojsiejczuk, U. Ankhanbaatar, J. Yang, J. R. Sadeyen, M. Iqbal, D. R. Perez, D. S. Rajao, A. Park, M. Viana, and P. R. Murcia. 2025. Evidence of Influenza A(H5N1) spillover infections in horses, Mongolia. Emerging Infectious Diseases 31(1):183–185.

Drehoff, C. C., E. B. White, A. M. Frutos, G. Stringer, A. Burakoff, N. Comstock, A. Cronquist, N. Alden, I. Armistead, A. Kohnen, R. Ratnabalasuriar, E. A. Travanty, S. R. Matzinger, A. Rossheim, A. Wellbrock, H. P. Pagano, D. Wang, J. Singleton, R. A. Sutter, C. T. Davis, K. Kniss, S. Ellington, M. K. Kirby, C. Reed, R. Herlihy, and H5N1 Field Investigation Team. 2024. Cluster of Influenza aA(H5) cases associated with poultry exposure at two facilities—Colorado, July 2024. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 73(34):734–739.

Fan, Y., H. Nishimura, M. Katsumi, J. Yang, S. Sakata, M. Kohzuki, and S. Ebihara. 2025. Minimal influenza virus transmission from touching contaminate floors and metal door levers: Laboratory study II. Microbiology and Immunology Jul;69(7):397–406. https//doi.org/10.1111/1348-0421.13226.

FDA (U.S. Food and Drug Administration). 2024. Designating an orphan product: Drugs and biological products. https://www.fda.gov/industry/medical-products-rare-diseasesand-conditions/designating-orphan-product-drugs-and-biological-products (accessed November 9, 2025).

Fung, W., K. Prado, A. Gold, A. Padovani, D. Carroll, and E. Finchum-Mason. 2023. Findings from the National Agricultural Workers Survey (NAWS) 2021–2022: A demographic and employment profile of United States crop workers. Report prepared for the U.S. Department of Labor by JBS International. https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ETA/naws/pdfs/NAWS%20Research%20Report%2017.pdf (accessed January 5, 2026).

Greenawald, L., S. Moore, and P. Yorio. 2020. Inhalation and exhalation resistance and filtration performance of stockpiled air-purifying respirators: Overall performance of nearly 4000 respirators sampled from ten stockpile facilities. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npptl/ppecase/pdfs/ppe-case-stockpile-5-v2-03012020-508.pdf (accessed January 5, 2026).

Hinds, W. C., and Y. Zhu. 2022. Aerosol technology: Properties, behavior, and measurement of airborne particles. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Jatta, M., C. Kiefer, H. Patolia, J. Pan, C. Harb, L. C. Marr, and A. Baffoe-Bonnie. 2021. N95 reprocessing by low temperature sterilization with 59% vaporized hydrogen peroxide during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic. American Journal of Infection Control 49(1):8–14.

Jimenez, J. L., L. C. Marr, K. Randall, E. T. Ewing, Z. Tufekci, T. Greenhalgh, R. Tellier, J. W. Tang, Y. Li, L. Morawska, J. Mesiano-Crookston, D. Fisman, O. Hegarty, S. J. Dancer, P. M. Bluyssen, G. Buonanno, M. Loomans, W. P. Bahnfleth, M. Yao, C. Sekhar, P. Wargocki, A. K. Melikov, and K. A. Prather. 2022. What were the historical reasons for the resistance to recognizing airborne transmission during the COVID-19 pandemic? Indoor Air 32(8):e13070.

Joint Supply Chain Resilience Workgroup. 2024. PPE standardization priorities for a resilient public health supply chain: Report from the healthcare and public health sector Joint Supply Chain Resilience Workgroup’s PPE standardization task group. Washington, DC: ASPR TRACIE. https://files.asprtracie.hhs.gov/documents/ppe-standardization-prioritiesfor-a-resilient-public-health-supply-chain.pdf (accessed January 5, 2026).

Kupferschmidt, K. 2022. WHO’s departing chief scientist regrets errors in debate over whether SARS-CoV-2 spreads through air. Science. https://www.science.org/content/article/who-s-departing-chief-scientist-regrets-errors-debate-over-whether-sars-cov-2-spreads (accessed January 5, 2026).

Le Sage, V., A. J. Campbell, D. S. Reed, W. P. Duprex, and S. S. Lakdawala. 2024. Persistence of influenza H5N1 and H1N1 viruses in unpasteurized milk on milking unit surfaces. Emerging Infectious Diseases 30(8):1721–1723.

Le Sage, V., B. D. Werner, G. A. Merrbach, S. E. Petnuch, A. K. O’Connell, H. C. Simmons, K. R. McCarthy, D. S. Reed, L. H. Moncla, D. Bhavsar, F. Krammer, N. A. Crossland, A. K. McElroy, W. P. Duprex, and S. S. Lakdawala. 2025. Influenza A(H5N1) immune response among ferrets with Influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 immunity. Emerging Infectious Diseases 31(3):477–487.

Leonard, J., E. J. Harker, C. M. Szablewski, S. F. Margrey, K. F. Gingrich II, K. Crossley, E. Fletcher, C. J. McCreavy, S. Weis-Torres, D. Wang, E. K. Noble, M. Z. Levine, H. P. Pagano, C. Holiday, F. Liu, S. Jefferson, Z. N. Li, F. L. Gross, C. Reed, S. Ellington, A. M. Mellis, and S. M. Olson. 2025. Notes from the field: Seroprevalence of highly pathogenic avian Influenza A(H5) virus infections among bovine veterinary practitioners—United States, September 2024. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 74(4):50–52.

Marshall, K. E., C. C. Drehoff, N. Alden, S. Montoya, G. Stringer, A. Kohnen, A. Mellis, S. Ellington, J. Singleton, C. Reed, R. Herlihy, and Colorado Field Team. 2024. Personal protective equipment use by dairy farmworkers exposed to cows infected with highly pathogenic avian Influenza A(H5N1) viruses—Colorado, 2024. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 73(44):999–1003.

Mellis, A. M., J. Coyle, K. E. Marshall, A. M. Frutos, J. Singleton, C. Drehoff, A. Merced-Morales, H. P. Pagano, R. O. Alade, E. B. White, E. K. Noble, C. Holiday, F. Liu, S. Jefferson, Z. N. Li, F. L. Gross, S. J. Olsen, V. G. Dugan, C. Reed, S. Ellington, S. Montoya, A. Kohnen, G. Stringer, N. Alden, P. Blank, D. Chia, N. Bagdasarian, R. Herlihy, S. Lyon-Callo, and M. Z. Levine. 2024. Serologic evidence of recent infection with highly pathogenic avian Influenza A(H5) virus among dairy workers —Michigan and Colorado, June–August 2024. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 73(44):1004–1009.

Moore, S. M., C. Coffey, M. Duling, and M. D’Alessandro. 2024. NIOSH healthcare personal protective technology targets for 2020 to 2030. Washington, DC: NIOSH Publications.

Morawska, L., and D. K. Milton. 2020. It is time to address airborne transmission of Corona-virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Clinical Infectious Diseases 71(9):2311–2313.

Naraharisetti, R., M. Weinberg, B. Stoddard, M. G. Stobierski, K. A. Dodd, N. Wineland, M. Beal, J. Morse, S. Hatter, D. Sledge, K. Youatt, J. Coyle, J. McFadden, T. M. Uyeki, and L. O. Durand. 2025. Highly pathogenic avian Influenza A(H5N1) virus infection of indoor domestic cats within dairy industry worker households—Michigan, May 2024. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 74(5):61–65.

National Poultry Improvement Plan. 2025. The NPIP 14 biosecurity principles. https://www.poultryimprovement.org/documents/BiosecurityPrinciplesENG.pdf (accessed October 20, 2025).

Nelli, R. K., T. A. Harm, C. Siepker, J. M. Groeltz-Thrush, B. Jones, N. C. Twu, A. S. Nenninger, D. R. Magstadt, E. R. Burrough, P. E. Pineyro, M. Mainenti, S. Carnaccini, P. J. Plummer, and T. M. Bell. 2024. Sialic acid receptor specificity in mammary gland of dairy cattle infected with highly pathogenic avian Influenza A(H5N1) virus. Emerging Infectious Diseases 30(7):1361–1373.

NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health). 2017. National framework for personal protective equipment conformity assessment—infrastructure. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2018–102.

NIOSH. 2021. How to tell if your N95 respirator is NIOSH approved. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2021-124. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2021-124/pdfs/2021-124.pdf?id=10.26616/NIOSH-PUB2021124 (accessed October 28, 2025).

NIOSH. 2024. About hierarchy of controls. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH). https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/hierarchy-of-controls/about/index.html (accessed November 9, 2025).

Pan, J., S. Gmati, B. A. Roper, A. J. Prussin II, S. A. Hawks, A. R. Whittington, N. K. Duggal, and L. C. Marr. 2023. Stability of aerosolized SARS-CoV-2 on masks and transfer to skin. Environmental Science & Technology 57(28):10193–10200.

Rengasamy, S., R. Shaffer, B. Williams, and S. Smit. 2017. A comparison of facemask and respirator filtration test methods. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene 14(2):92–103.

Scheftel, J. M., K. E. Schenk, L. J. Bauck, M. L. Bye, M. J. Ireland, C. A. Klumb, L. M. Kollmann, K. E. Smith, S. J. Voss, B. L. Hoefs, L. J. Hunt, and S. M. Holzbauer. 2025. Human health surveillance during animal disease emergencies: Minnesota Department of Health response to highly pathogenic avian influenza outbreaks, 2015 and 2022–2023. Journal of Agromedicine 30(3):591–602.

Tong, Y., J. Pan, E. Kucukdeger, A. L. Johnson, L. C. Marr, and B. N. Johnson. 2021. 3D printed mask frames improve the inward protection efficiency of a cloth mask. ACS ES&T Engineering 1(6):1000–1008.

Tseng, C.-C., and C.-S. Li. 2005. Inactivation of virus-containing aerosols by ultraviolet germicidal irradiation. Aerosol Science and Technology 39(12):1136–1142.

U.S. Government Accountability Office. 2023. Meat and poultry worker safety: OSHA should determine how to address persistent hazards exacerbated by COVID-19. Washington, D.C.: GAO.

USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture). 2022. Dairy cattle and milk production. https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/Highlights/2024/Census22_HL_Dairy.pdf (accessed October 29, 2025).

USDA. 2025a. Confirmations of highly pathogenic avian influenza in commercial and backyard flocks. https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/avian/avian-influenza/hpai-detections/commercial-backyard-flocks (accessed October 13, 2025).

USDA. 2025b. Detections of highly pathogenic avian influenza in mammals. https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/avian/avian-influenza/hpai-detections/mammals (accessed October 13, 2025).

USDA. 2025c. Detections of highly pathogenic avian influenza in wild birds. https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/avian/avian-influenza/hpai-detections/wild-birds (accessed October 13, 2025).

USDA. 2025d. HPAI confirmed cases in livestock. https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestockpoultry-disease/avian/avian-influenza/hpai-detections/hpai-confirmed-cases-livestock (accessed October 13, 2025).

Vazquez, R. I., D. Charlier, C. Peterson, P. N. Balius, J. D. Kirsch, A. Liebman, and J. B. Bender. 2025. Health and safety training for immigrant dairy workers in the Upper Midwest. Journal of Dairy Science 108(4):3756–3763.

Xia, T., A. Kleinheksel, E. M. Lee, Z. Qiao, K. R. Wigginton, and H. L. Clack. 2019. Inactivation of airborne viruses using a packed bed non-thermal plasma reactor. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 52(25):255201.

Zhang, J., D. Huntley, A. Fox, B. Gerhardt, A. Vatine, and J. Cherne. 2020. Study of viral filtration performance of residential HVAC filters. ASHRAE Journal 62(8):26–32.

Zhu, S., K. Harriman, C. Liu, V. Kraushaar, C. Hoover, K. Shim, S. I. Brummitt, J. Limas, K. Garvey, J. McNary, N. J. Gao, R. Ryder, B. Stavig, J. Schapiro, C. Morales, D. A. Wadford, H. Howard, J. Heffelfinger, R. Campagna, E. Iniguez-Stevens, H. Gharibi, D. Lopez, L. Esbenshade, P. Ptomey, K. K. Trivedi, J. A. Herrera, J. Locke, N. Moss, P. Rzucidlo, K. Hernandez, M. Nguyen, S. Paul, J. Mateo, C. Del Carmen Luna, Y. Chang, M. Rangel, K. DeLeon, A. Masood, T. Papasozomenos, P. Moua, K. Reinhart, K. Kniss, C. T. Davis, M. K. Kirby, E. Pan, E. L. Murray, Los Angeles County H5 Response Team, and California Department of Public Health H5 Laboratory Response Team. Human cases of highly pathogenic avian Influenza A(H5N1) — California, September–December 2024. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2025(74):127–133.