Ingo Potrykus was interviewed by Nancy Marie Brown in April 2003; publications by Potrykus and his colleagues (particularly those listed in the bibliography as Beyer et al. [2002], Lucca et al. [2001], and Ye et al. [2000]) were major sources for this chapter. Mary Lou Guerinot of Dartmouth College wrote the “glowing commentary.” Additional sources include publications by and interviews with Gary Toenniessen and Klaus Ammann (who were interviewed by Brown in February 2003) and correspondence with Henry Miller. Much of the backlash against Golden Rice, and many of Potrykus’s responses to his critics, are posted on www.agbioworld.org. C. K. Rao’s “rice, green chilies, and salt” comment was printed by Jan Bowman in Spiked, 19 February 2003 (www.spiked-online.com). Datta’s comments and information on the current status of Golden Rice can be found at www.irri.org.
Good sources for the history of plant breeding are Kloppenburg (1988), Lurquin (2000), and Torrey (1985). Background information on rice came from Te-Tzu Chang’s chapter in Kiple (2002); Khush (1977); and Oka (1988). Richard Langer speculated on Versace’s taste in cauliflower in the New York Times, 20 February 2002. The All Red potato is described by Weaver (2000). Information on Rio Red grapefruit came from Texas A&M University’s Citrus Center and on Above wheat from the Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station. All quotations concerning Burbank and his work are from Dreyer (1985).
The history of mutation breeding, including the colchicine “craze,” can be found in Harten (1998). The description of triticale as the first “intergeneric hybrid” is from Simmonds (1976). Raven’s opinion of protoplast culture comes from the fourth edition of Biology of Plants (Worth Publishers, 1986). T. Kinoshita and K. Mori’s protoplast fusion techniques are described in Maluszynski and Kasha (2002), as are W. Navarro Alvarez’s salt-tolerant rice experiments, B. P. Forster’s comments on Golden Promise barley, and the anther culture experiments of Q. F. Chen, C. L. Wang, Y. M. Lu, M. Shen, R. Afza, M. V. Duren, and H. Brunner. Creso wheat is discussed by P. Donini and A. Sonnino in Jain et al. (1998); in the same volume, P. C. Remotti comments on the nonuniformity of plantlets grown from callus tissue. The Mutant Variety Database was established by the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in 1969 and is available on the Internet at www.infocris.iaea.org/MVD/nav.htm.
The coining of “Frankenfood” is discussed by William Safire in the 13 August 2000 New York Times; thanks to Eric Hallerman for the reference.
The beginnings of agriculture are discussed by E. Anderson (1967); P. C. Anderson (1999); J. Cohen (1995); M. N. Cohen (1977) and in his chapter in Kiple (2002); Diamond (1999 and 2002); Farb and Armelagos (1980); Fernandez-Armesto (2002); Harlan (1995); Heiser (1990); Jones (1969 and 1995); Kloppenberg (1988); MacNeish (1991); Oka (1988); Salvador (1998); Simpson and Ogorzaly (1995); Smith (1995 and 2001); Tudge (1995 and 1998); and Zohary and Hopf (1993). Florence Shipek summarizes her investigations of the Kumeyaay in Harris and Hillman (1989). Early attitudes toward potatoes, corn, chocolate, coffee, tomatoes, and other crops are noted by Coe and Coe (1996), Evans (1998), Fussell (1992), Pendergast (1999), Visser (1986), and Zuckerman (1998); by Timothy Johns and J. G. Hawkes in Harris and Hillman (1989); and by Jonathan Beecher Field in Benes (1996). The early settlers’ dislike of tomatoes is chronicled by Andrew F. Smith
in Benes (1996), while Daniel A. Romani Jr. in the same volume discusses the importing of grasses and clover.
Recent studies of wheat include those by Buckler et al. (2001); Huang et al. (2002); Kellogg (2001); Salamini et al. (2002); and Daniel Zohary in Anderson (1999). Jack R. Harlan’s stories of harvesting wild grass seed can be found in Anderson (1999) and Harris and Hillman (1989). Gordon C. Hillman and M. Stuart Davis reported on their wild wheat experiments in Anderson (1999).
Doebley and his colleagues have published their work on the origins of corn in a series of papers, including those listed in the bibliography as Bennetzen et al. (2001), Doebley (1992, 1994, and 2001), Doebley et al. (1997), Eyre-Walker et al. (1998), Jaenicke-Despres et al. (2003), Lauter and Doebley (2002), Matsuoka et al. (2002), Wang et al. (1999), and White and Doebley (1998). East’s “A Chronicle of Corn” appeared in Popular Science Monthly in 1913. Mangelsdorf and Reeves published their theory in 1938 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Other details concerning the history of corn come from George W. Beadle’s “The Ancestry of Corn,” in Scientific American, January 1980, as well as from Iltis (1983 and his 2002 conference paper abstracted at www.2002.botanyconference.org/section4.abstracts/4.shtml); the description of Iltis is from Fussell (1992). The worldwide success of corn is noted by Michael Pollan in “When a Crop Becomes King,” New York Times, 19 July 2002. Benz (2001) and Piperno and Flannery (2001) discuss the redating of the earliest known corncobs.
The theories of Malthus and Darwin and the experiments of Priestley and Mendel can be found in many textbooks; it was Bernard D. Davis (1991) who suggested that the early lack of interest in Mendel’s theories were due to his “mathematical approach.” Sachs’s Lectures on the Physiology of Plants (The Clarendon Press, 1887) is more obscure; Sachs’s artificial plants were referenced by Torrey (1985). The early experiments on the nitrogen question, the influence of Liebig, and the comments of Wöhler on the vitalist principle are described in Evan Pugh’s letters and other documents preserved in the archives of the
Pennsylvania State University libraries. Murray’s career is described by Peter Childs in Chemistry in Action, Autumn 2000. Bateson’s comments are cited by Carlson (1966).
Burbank and Shull’s personality clash is described by Dreyer (1985). Pendergast (1999) comments on Sanka. Hubbell (2001) and Pollan (2001) tell the story of Johnny Appleseed. Additional information on grafting comes from Rayle and Wedburg (1975), while Kloppenberg (1988) discusses plant-gathering expeditions.
Shull’s 1909 paper on the “pure-line method” was published in the Report of the American Breeders’ Association. The response to hybrid corn is described by Kloppenberg (1988), Heiser (1990), and Duvick (personal communication, 2003), while the standards enforced by the corn shows are outlined in Henry A. Wallace and Earl N. Bressman’s Corn and Corn Growing (John Wiley and Sons, 1949).
Norman Borlaug’s biography derives from Conway (1997), from Gregg Easterbrook’s profile in the Atlantic Monthly (January 1997), and from Rayle and Wedburg (1975), as well as from the Nobel Institute’s e-Museum (www.nobel.se), on which two of Borlaug’s lectures are also available. Borlaug’s comments on Ghurdev Khush’s achievements were published on www.irri.org.
The genetic mutation behind miracle rice is described in Sasaki et al. (2002).
Ernst Mayr’s classic book, Systematics and the Origin of Species, was published in 1942, yet how to define the term “species” and how to categorize plants remain active areas of research for taxonomists. Morrison (1998) discusses the problem of classifying wheat and its relatives; Morrison was also a coordinator of the “Wheat Synonymy” project at the USDA. In Hey (1997) a geneticist at Rutgers University tackles the species question. Interesting details concerning rice and the brassicas come from Gary W. Crawford’s chapter in Cowan and Watson (1992); Heiser (1990); Oka (1988); Roberts (2001); Simmonds (1976); Simpson and Ogorzaly (1995); Tudge (1995 and 2000); and Weaver (2000).
Bud (1993), Carlson (1966), Davis (1991), and Portugal and Cohen (1977) discuss the early history of the concept of the gene. Biographical details about T. H. Morgan come from Allen (1975); Carlson (1966); Shine and Wrobel (1976); and Alfred Sturtevant’s entry on Morgan in Biographical Memoirs 33 (1959). Judson (1979) cites Max Delbrück’s comment that DNA was “stupid.”
Bhattacharyya et al. (1990) identified the genetic basis of Mendel’s wrinkled-seed trait.
The first complete sequencing of the human genome was announced in February 2001 simultaneously in Science and in Nature; the scientific papers were accompanied by numerous commentaries, including the essays mentioned here by Svante Pääbo in Science and David Baltimore in Nature. Jacob (1977) articulates the concept of evolutionary tinkering, which is further developed by Duboule and Wilkins (1998).
Studies and reviews on antifreeze genes in fish and plants include Cheng (1998), Huang et al. (2002), and Yeh et al. (2000). Dunsmuir’s tomato experiments are described in Hightower et al. (1991). Martineau (2001) tells the story of Calgene’s FlavrSavr tomato. Jennie Addario reported on the rally in which a protestor wore a tomato-fish costume in the Spring 2002 issue of the Ryerson Review of Journalism.
The McClintock biography mentioned is Evelyn Fox Keller’s 1983 book, A Feeling for the Organism; the scientist whose experience contradicts Keller’s description is Nina Fedoroff, coauthor of the present volume, who worked with McClintock for several years and has written extensively on McClintock’s discovery, as well as on her own work on transposons. Lee Kass of Cornell University was consulted for some biographical details concerning McClintock.
That Watson and Crick’s description of the double helix was “tight as a sonnet” is the observation of Tudge (1995).
The history of canola oil comes from the chapter by Paul R. Mayers, Peter Kearns, Karen E. McIntyre, and Jennifer A. Eastwood in Atherton (2002); from Bill Wagner’s article in the FDA Consumer magazine, November 1993; and from several reports on the website of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. Kneen’s book was reviewed by The Ottawa Citizen, 5 July 1999.
The first DNA chimera is reported by Cohen et al. (1973). Cohen tells the story less formally in the July 1975 Scientific American; another version, his 1992 lecture “From Corned Beef to Cloning,” is posted on www.accessexcellence.org.
Bud (1993), Conway (1997), Judson (1979), Lurquin (2002), and Russo (2003) all describe a “birth of biotechnology.” Additional information about Lederberg and bacterial sex can be found on the websites of the National Library of Medicine and the Nobel Institute. The Nobel e-Museum (www.nobel.se) also provides information about Berg’s recombinant DNA experiments, which were published as Jackson et al. (1972). Hardy’s comments about transgenic cheese can be found on the Senate hearing website: http://www.senate.gov/~agriculture/Hearings/Hearings_1999/har99106.htm.
The spinach DNA experimental protocol by Teri Curtis is available on www.accessexcellence.org.
PCR is described by Mullis (1998) and Rabinow (1996). Shawn Carlson published “PCR at Home” in the July 2000 issue of Scientific American.
Torrey (1985), Busch et al. (1991), Lurquin (2001 and 2002), and Jack Widholm’s chapter in Nelson (2001) summarize the techniques used to transform plants, as do Charles S. Gasser and Robert T. Fraley in the June 1992 Scientific American. Chilton et al. (1977), Schell and Van Montagu (1977), and Zambryski et al. (1980 and 1983) report the Agrobacterium method; Chilton describes it less formally in Scientific American, June 1983. Sanford (1988 and 2000) describes the “cowboy approach,” or biolistics. The genome of Agrobacterium was described by Lurquin (2000) and Genome News Network (http://gnn.tigr.org/), 21 December 2001; the sequence is reported in Wood et al. (2001).
Major sources for this chapter include interviews with Roger Beachy, Lawrence Kent, Ernie Jaworski, Karel Schubert, and Nigel Taylor of the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, and with Chuck Armstrong, Jim Astwood, Rob Horsch, Steve Padgette, John Purcell, and Eric Sachs of the Monsanto Company; the interviews were conducted by Brown and Fedoroff in November 2003.
The story of the virus-resistant papaya comes from the September 1998 APSNet Feature by Dennis Gonsalves, Steve Ferreira, Richard Manshardt, Maureen Fitch, and Jerry Slightom on the American Phytopathological Society’s website (www.apsnet.org), as well as from Gianessi et al. (2002), Health Canada (www.agbios.com), and Cornell University (www.nysaes.cornell.edu). Post-transcriptional gene silencing in papayas was explained by Tennant et al. (2001).
The question of plant patents is covered by Ambrosoli (1997); Dreyer (1985); and Magnus, Caplan, and McGee (2002), particularly the chapters by A. M. Chakrabarty, R. S. Eisenberg, and J. Wilson. Background information was supplied by Richard Craig of the Pennsylvania State University, who was interviewed by Brown in June 2003. Maan’s 1977 patent for hybrid wheat is available at http://patft.uspto.gov.
Regulation of DNA experiments and of genetically modified food is discussed by Berg et al. (1974), Kelman et al. (1987), Davis (1991), Turney (1998), Smith (2000), Martineau (2001), Paarlberg (2001), Atherton (2002), and Lurquin (2002). The relevant publications by the FDA are available at www.fda.gov. Fedoroff was a member of the NIH Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee from 1980-1984 and a member of the NIH Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee Working Group on Guideline Revisions in 1987. Fredrickson’s and Stone’s recollections are online at http://www.nih.gov/news/ and http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/. Miller’s comments were conveyed by personal correspondence; his letters and op-ed pieces have been published in the Scientist (8 July 2002, 30 September 2002, and 28 October 2002), on TechCentralStation.com (22 October 2002), the European Wall Street Journal (1 July 2003), and Nature Biotechnology (December 2003). Current regulations are detailed on the websites of the USDA,
FDA, and EPA. Statistics concerning the acreage planted to GM varieties comes from the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications, www.isaaa.org.
Good sources of information on the safety of genetically engineered foods are the 2003 position paper of the Society of Toxicology (http://toxsci.oupjournals.org/) and the July 2003 report of the U.K.’s GM Science Review Panel, formed by Margaret Beckett (http://www.gmsciencedebate.org.uk/). Michael Pariza addresses the same issues in a chapter in Kiple (2002), as do Jan Pedersen, Folmer D. Eriksen, and Ib Knudsen in Custers (2001).
Per Pinstrup-Andersen was interviewed by Brown in February 2003; the international survey mentioned is discussed in Pinstrup-Andersen and Schioler (2000). Petra Frey of the University of California wrote the teaching module; her protocol for extracting DNA from tomatoes is available at http://ucbiotech.org/edu/edu_aids/TomatoDNA.html. The calculation of up to a gram of DNA per day comes from Fremde DNA im Säugersystem by W. Doerfler and R. Schubbert (1997), as cited in the 2000 FAO-WHO report, “Safety Aspects of Genetically Modified Foods of Plant Origin.”
Studies of the digestion of DNA include Doerfler (2000), Duggan et al. (2000), and Schubbert et al. (1998). Gilbert’s most recent work is Netherwood et al. (2004); his burger and shake study is posted at www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/gmnewcastlereport.PDF.
Roelofs and Van Hasstert (2001) discusses the similarity of human genes and bacterial genes. Brown (2003) examines horizontal gene transfer.
Chambers et al. (2002) addresses the fate of antibiotic-resistance marker genes. The low probability of resistance passing between bacteria is discussed in the 2000 and 2001 FAO-WHO reports, the 2003 Society of Toxicology paper, the 2000 report to Congress cited as Smith (2000), the American Medical Association’s 2000 report (see www.amaassn.org), and the 2003 report of the U.K. GM Science Review Panel (see www.gmsciencedebate.org.uk/). Sandeep Kumar and Matthias Fladung describe new methods that do not use antibiotic-resistance
marker genes in Jain et al. (2002), as do Henry Daniell, in the same volume; Jack Widholm in Nelson (2001); and Lurquin (2002).
Kohli et al. (1999) was the CaMV 35S promoter study that sparked the response by Ho et al. (1999); Michael Hansen of Consumers Union elaborates in Nelson (2001). One of the authors of Kohli et al. (1999) is P. Christou, who rebutted Quist and Chapela’s study of criollo corn (see Chapter 11). Basic information on cauliflower mosaic virus comes from Central Coast Agriculture Highlights, published by the University of California at Davis, and Shepherd’s Descriptions of Plant Viruses, online at www3res.bbsrc.ac.uk/.
Information on the naturally toxic chemicals in foods comes from Ames and Gold (1997 and 2000); Farb and Armelagos (1980); Harlan (1995); Paarlberg (2001); Michael Pariza in Kiple (2002); and Visser (1986). The history of canola oil is from the chapter by Paul R. Mayers, Peter Kearns, Karen E. McIntyre, and Jennifer A. Eastwood in Atherton (2002); the same authors define “substantial equivalence.” Roger Beachy and several colleagues discuss substantial equivalence in practice in the letter “Divergent Perspectives on GM Food” in Nature Biotechnology, December 2002.
Information on conventional plant breeding trials can be found at www.all-americaselections.org. Herb Cole of the Pennsylvania State University was interviewed about the Lenape potato by Brown in December 2003. Colorado State University’s Transgenic Crops: An Introduction and Resource Guide, by Pat Byrne, Sarah Ward, Judy Harrington, and Lacy Fuller, is online at www.colostate.edu/programs/lifesciences/TransgenicCrops/history.html.
Levy’s work with distant crosses was described in Kashkush et al. (2002). A collection of T-DNA insertions in Arabidopsis was described by Ichikawa et al. (2003).
Fedoroff was a member of the 2003 committee to review the FDA’s guidelines concerning transgenic crops; she was also an external advisor to the FDA committee that initially approved the FlavrSavr tomato.
The Royal Society’s review of Pusztai’s work, “Review of Data on Possible Toxicity of GM Potatoes,” is published in Promoting Excellence
in Science (www.royalsoc.ac.uk); Pusztai’s comments are posted at http://www.wsws.org/articles/1999/feb1999/food-f17.shtml; his Lancet paper is Ewen and Pusztai (1999); and his data are available at www.rowett.ac.uk/gmo/ajp.htm. M. Enserink followed the situation in a series of editorials for Science in 1998 and 1999; see volumes 281 (page 1184), 283 (page 1094), and 286 (page 656). The idea that the difference Pusztai reported was due to somoclonal variation is supported by Bhat and Srinivasan (2002). Kozukue et al. (1999) discusses the inheritance of glycoalkaloids in potatoes, and Patel et al. (2002) discusses their effects.
Research and reviews related to lectins can be found in Battelli et al. (1997), Carlini and Grossi-de-Sa (2002), Down et al. (2000 and 2001), Fitches et al. (2001 and 2002), Foissac et al. (2000), Hester and Wright (1996), Naughton et al. (2000), Olsnes and Kozlov (2001), Pusztai et al. (1990 and 1993), Rao et al. (1998), Romeis et al. (2003), and Rudiger et al. (2000). The kidney bean lunch is reported in Freed (1999).
Allergenicity is discussed by Buchanan (2001); Kleter and Peijnenburg (2002); Dean D. Metcalfe in Atherton (2002); Marion Nestle in Kiple (2002); Earle Nestmann, Todd Copeland, and Jason Hlywka in Atherton (2002); and Taylor (2003). Heiser (1990) notes that Kellogg called peanuts “the noble nut.” Gina Kolata wrote about the allergy-limiting drug in the New York Times, 11 March 2003. The “Fruit Detective” was profiled by John Seabrook in the 19 & 26 August 2002 issue of the New Yorker. Catherine Woteki of Iowa State University was interviewed by Brown in February 2003; John Beard of the Pennsylvania State University was interviewed by Brown in July 2003. Lehrer’s comment was cited by Pinstrup-Andersen and Schioler (2000). Background information on current allergenicity testing was provided by Jim Astwood, who was interviewed by Fedoroff and Brown in November 2003.
Nestle’s editorial (1996) accompanied publication of Nordlee et al. (1996), the results of the safety tests Taylor and his colleagues performed on the Brazil-nut protein-containing soybean. Cook is quoted in Smith (2000).
The story of StarLink corn is summarized in the 2003 report of the
Society of Toxicologists. Betz et al. (2000); Brian A. Federici in Atherton (2002); and Siegel (2001) discuss the safety of Bt. The CDC report is available at www.cdc.gov/nceh/ehhe/Cry9cReport/default.htm. Links to relevant news stories can be found on the Colorado State University website mentioned in Chapter 8, www.colostate.edu/programs/lifesciences/TransgenicCrops/history.html.
Federici’s chapter in Atherton (2002) discusses the reduction in fungal toxins in Bt corn. Bob Buchanan described his work in testimony before the U.S. Senate Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry in 1999. Samuel Lehrer presented his work at the American Association for the Advancement of Science’s annual meeting in Denver in 2003, which Brown attended. Eliot Herman’s work is discussed in the 2003 Annual Report of the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center in St. Louis.
“The Butterfly Flap,” as journalist Peter Pringle named it in Prospect Magazine in July 2003, has been widely discussed. Examples are Gatehouse et al. (2002); Lambrecht (2001); Gerald C. Nelson in Nelson (2001); and Pinstrup-Andersen and Schioler (2000). The original study was Losey et al. (1999). The results of the “remarkable study” were published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, volume 98, issue 21; see especially Sears et al. (2001), which summarizes all the papers, and Stanley-Horn et al. (2001), to which Losey contributed. EPA’s 2001 Biopesticides Registration Action Document, “Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Plant-Incorporated Protectants,” which, according to www.scidev.net, shows signs of “a robust social consensus” on the use of Bt corn, is available at www.epa.gov. The taxonomic connection between Bt and anthrax is made by Helgason et al. (2000).
Mellon was quoted by Pringle. Shelton’s comment “every entomologist knows” and Foster’s comment “not an entomologist in the world” are from Brian A. Federici’s chapter in Atherton (2002); “not an entomologist in the world” is from Smith (2000). “How many monarchs get killed on the windshield of a car?” is from “The Pharmageddon Riddle” by Michael Specter, published in the 10 April 2000 New Yorker; Specter also designated monarch butterflies “the great
fluttering pandas of the insect world.” Gordon was quoted in Smith (2000).
The link between plant toxins and natural insecticides is made by Ames and Gold (1997 and 2000); Harlan (1995); and Michael Pariza in Kiple (2002). Nelson’s chapter in Nelson (2001) and Smith (2000) discuss the damage done by corn borers; Gianessi et al. (2002) predict the future use of insecticides in the absence of Bt corn. Chuck Armstrong was interviewed by Fedoroff and Brown in November 2003.
Studies of refugia and insect resistance management, as well as commentaries on the subject, are found in Fox (2003), Ostlie et al. (1997, from which our illustration was adapted), Shelton et al. (2000 ), and Tabashnik et al. (2000 and 2003). Huang et al. (1999) suggests that a dominant form of resistance is possible; in a reply, Shelton and Roush (1999) point out that the resistance Huang saw was unrelated to the presence of Bt in the plant. The New York Times reported on compliance with the EPA’s refugia rules on 19 June 2003.
Gene flow, as a natural and ancient process, is discussed in the chapter by Klaus Ammann, Yolande Jacot, Pia Rufener, and Al Mazyad in Custers (2001) and by Ammann (2003).
Papers relevant to transgenes in Mexican maize landraces are Quist and Chapela (2001), the rebuttal by Christou (2002), and the letter by Robert Wager, Peter LaFayette, and Wayne Parrot to the Electronic Journal of Biotechnology, 14 August 2002, published on www.agbioworld.org. The dispute was reported in the New York Times on 2 October 2001 and 5 April 2002; on the editorial pages of the Chronicle of Higher Education (26 April 2002), Nature (April 2002 online edition), Nature Biotechnology (January 2002), and Science (1 March 2002); and by Berkeleyan (5 December 2001), Reason OnLine (12 February 2002, reason.com), Spiked (17 July 2002, www.spiked-online.com), and the Scientist (6 October 2003 and 10 October 2003).
Martinez-Soriano (2000) places gene flow into the context of corn domestication, as did Major Goodman and Peter Raven in their presentations at the Pew Foundation Conference, Mexico City, Septem-
ber 2003 (pewagbiotech.org/events/0929/presentations/galvez.pdf). Comments by Masa Iwanaga and Julien Berthaud, and the proceedings of the 1995 conference on gene flow in maize, are available at www.cimmyt.cgiar.org. Duvick’s remarks on hybrid corn were conveyed by personal correspondence.
Proceedings of the USDA-sponsored conference on canola are McCammon and Dwyer (1990). Hall et al. (2000) reports on canola volunteers with multiple resistance. Rieger et al. (2002) tracked the spread of canola pollen in Australia. Wilkinson et al. (2000 and 2003) report on hybrid brassicas in the U.K.
Bob Scott and Chris Tingle discuss the need for Roundup Ready soy in Arkansas in the Delta Farm Press, 7 March 2003.
Information on the organic foods industry, including the current Organic Rule, can be found on the USDA’s website (www.ams.usda.gov/). Dimitri and Richman (2000) discusses the problems of conflicting standards. A sampling of the controversy following publication of the draft organic rule is available on the website “Pest Management at the Crossroads” (www.pmac.net), including the quotes by Roger Blobaum, Jay Feldman, Dan Glickman, and Eric Kindberg. “Small Organic Farmers Pull Up Stakes” by Samuel Fromartz was published on the Op-Ed page of the New York Times, 14 October 2002.
Comparison tests of organic and conventional vegetables were reported in Basker (1992) and Woese et al. (1997). Marian Burros wrote about the Consumers Union study of pesticide residues in the New York Times, 8 May 2002; the Associated Press story published the same day was by Philip Brasher.
Baker et al. (2002), Maroni and Fait (1993), and Petrie et al. (2003) discuss pesticide residues and effects. Ames and Gold (1997 and 2000) discuss the contribution of natural and artificial pesticides to cancer, while Block et al. (1992) reports on the epidemiological connection between diets high in fruits and vegetables and cancer. Renn (2003) and Calabrese and Baldwin (2003) examine hormesis. Studies of foodborne bacteria include Bari et al. (2003), Michino et al. (1999), Sagoo
et al. (2003), Solomon et al. (2002), and Wachtel et al. (2002). Reports on the possible hazards of Bt include Damgaard et al. (1997), Helgason et al. (2000), and Scribner (2001). Smil (2001) recounts the history of the fertilizer industry.
The study of Washington apples was reported by Tim Steury in Washington State Magazine, November 2001. Per Pinstrup-Andersen was interviewed by Brown in February 2003; Pinstrup-Andersen and Schioler (2000) review Altieri’s argument concerning the Bolivian potato comparison. Peter Raven’s comment that “more is needed” in Africa comes from his address, “The Environmental Challenge,” presented at the Natural History Museum in London, 22 May 2003, and posted on www.agbioworld.org.
The successes and failures of the Green Revolution, and the need for new agricultural technologies that conserve land and water resources, are discussed by Avery (1995); Norman Borlaug, in his Thirtieth Anniversary Lecture at the Norwegian Nobel Institute, 8 September 2000 (www.nobel.se); Cassmann (1999 and in a February 2003 interview by Brown); Conway (1997); Evans (1998); Fedoroff and Cohen (1999); Paarlberg (2001); and Tilman (1998). Peter Raven’s suggestion that two planets will be needed to sustain a high standard of living comes from “The Environmental Challenge” (www.agbioworld.org).
Andrew C. Revkin wrote “Severe Water and Land Loss Predicted Over a Generation” for the New York Times, 23 May 2002. The “water war” in Bolivia was described by William Finnegan in the 8 April 2002 New Yorker. Indur Goklany’s work was cited by Matt Ridley in the Guardian, 3 April 2003. Dennis Avery was interviewed by Jonathan Rauch for the Atlantic Monthly, October 2003; the magazine published Gregg Easterbrook’s profile of Borlaug in January 1997. The World Resources Institute publication is Thrupp (2002).
Klaus Ammann and Jim Cook were interviewed by Brown in February 2003; Ernie Jaworski and Steve Padgette were interviewed in November 2003. The history of Roundup was provided by Monsanto. David Mortensen of the Pennsylvania State University provided back-
ground information on herbicide-resistant soybeans. Ambrosoli (1997) discusses the history of plowing. Information about conservation tillage is available from the Conservation Technology Information Center at Purdue University (www.ctic.purdue.edu), including the report by Fawcett and Towery (2002) and a summary of the study of earthworm survival in no-till fields.
The story of the San Marzano tomato is told by Michael Specter in the New Yorker, 10 April 2000; by Sergio Dompé in Slow: The International Herald of Taste, July-September 2001; and by Leonardo Vingiani in the essay, “The Application of Biotechnology: What Do Italians Think?”, posted on the website of the International Centre for Pesticides and Health Risk Prevention (www.icps.it). The virus-resistant tomato is reported in Valanzuolo et al. (1994).
Information on plum pox in Pennsylvania comes from a review by Frederick Gildow of the Pennsylvania State University (sharka.cas.psu/review_update.htm); from reports in the USDA’s Agricultural Research, September 2001 and October 2003 (www.ars.usda.gov); and from the APSNet Feature of March 2000 by Laurene Levy, Vern Damsteegt, Ralph Scorza, and Maria Kolber on the website of the American Phytopathological Society (www.apsnet.org). John Wall interviewed farmers Jim Lerew and Jim Lott for “A Plague Upon the Land,” in Penn State Agriculture, Summer-Fall 2000. Ravelonandro et al. (2000) describe the virus-resistant plum.
Information on the U.K.’s Farm Scale Evaluations can be found on the website of the Royal Society (www.pubs.royalsoc.ac.uk). The Scientist reported on the results on 16 October 2003.
Rob Horsch was interviewed by Brown and Fedoroff in November 2003; some comments are quoted from his 12 June 2003 testimony before the House Science Committee, Subcommittee on Research (www.house.gov/science). Qaim (1999) discusses the economic effects of a virus-resistant sweet potato. Paarlberg (2001) and Conway and Toenniessen (2003) describe Africa’s farm production problem. Additional comments come from Robert Paarlberg’s lecture, “Environmen-
tally Sustainable Agriculture in the Twenty-first Century,” as cited by Horsch in his 12 June 2003 congressional testimony, and from Paarlberg’s own testimony before the House Science Committee, Subcommittee on Research, 25 September 2001. USAID’s Josette Lewis was quoted by Erik Stokstad in the 21 March 2003 Science. Other information on the virus-resistant sweet potato came from reprints on Florence Wambugu’s website A Harvest Biotech Foundation International (www.ahbfi.org), including a profile by Claire Bisseker in the Financial Mail, 24 August 2001, and the interview by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 16 September 2003. Fred Pearce’s “Feeding Africa” was published in the New Scientist, 27 May 2000. Wambugu’s “Taking the Food Out of Our Mouths” was printed in the Washington Post, 26 August 2001, and her “Why Africa Needs Agricultural Biotech” was published in Nature, 1 July 1999. Lawrence Kent and Nigel Taylor were interviewed by Brown in November 2003.
Fedoroff and Brown interviewed Eric Sachs and Rob Horsch in November 2003. The St. Louis Post-Dispatch editorial appeared 31 October 2003. Brown interviewed Ingo Potrykus in April 2003, John Beard in July 2003, and Karel Schubert in November 2003.
Additional information on the bioavailability tests of IR16844 is posted on the IRRI website (www.irri.org). Robert Russell’s calculations were cited by Potrykus in a lecture at Yale University in April 2003. Michael Pollan wrote “Great Yellow Hype” in the New York Times Magazine, 4 March 2001. Henry Miller replied to Pollan’s article in a letter to the editor submitted to the New York Times Magazine on 6 March 2001 and printed on agbioworld.org.
Advances in plant science that could lead to higher yields are described in de la Fuente et al. (1997) on aluminum tolerance; Ku et al. (1999 and 2001) on photosynthesis; Miflin and Habash (2002) on nitrogen use; and Nuccio et al. (1999) and Winicov (1998) on salt stress.
The Zambian decision was reported by Davan Maharaj and Anthony Mukwita for the Los Angeles Times (28 August 2002) and by Sudarsan Raghavan for Knight-Ridder newspapers (24 November
2002). Zimbabwe’s situation was reported by the BBC on 6 September 2002. The New York Times article, in which Lizette Alvarez reported from the Happy Apple greengrocer in Totnes, was published 11 February 2003. Dan Simberloff was quoted in the Washington Post, 21 April 1998. Fussell (1992) identifies the “world of hidden corn.” Simon Mwanza describes his trip to America, during which he learned that “Maize is not directly consumed in America,” in the Times of Zambia (26 June 2003); his article is available on allafrica.com and www.checkbiotech.org.
The 2003 survey in America was performed by the Discovery Channel and reported by the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (www.isaaa.org). The 1993 survey of New Jersey residents was performed by Rutgers University and the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station and is available through the National Agriculture Library at www.nal.usda.gov/bic/Pubpercep/.
The need for more food, and the environmental challenge of producing it, are discussed by Norman Borlaug in an essay printed on the New York Times Op-Ed page, 11 July 2003; and by Avery (1995), Brown (1995), Cassman (1999), Cohen (1995), Conway and Toenniessen (2003), Ehrlich (1968), Hardin (1968), Miller (2003), and Smil (2001). Gary Toenniessen was interviewed by Brown in February 2003. Juma (2003) addresses the ideologies that stand in the way of accepting genetically modified foods. Peter Raven’s comments are from his address, “The Environmental Challenge” (www.agbioworld.org).