A

Activists and protesters

beliefs and misconceptions about GM foods, 6, 7, 8, 10, 20, 71-72, 91-92, 108, 156, 187, 223, 225, 285-286, 299-300, 310, 312

big-business concerns, 151, 152-153

destruction of experiments, 146

gene flow concerns, 223, 225, 235

and Monarch butterfly, 203-209

Aegilops speltoides, 28

Aegilops squarrosa, 29, 30, 67, 68, 141

African Agricultural Technology Foundation, 296, 297

Agricultural Biotechnology Stewardship Technical Committee, 205

Agricultural development. See also Domestication of wild species;

Organic farming and foods;

Selective breeding;

Sustainable agriculture

arable farming, 30

barriers to yield increases, 303-309

and biodiversity, 240-241, 243, 315

cultivated land, 264-265, 304

ecological effects, 240-241, 243, 263-270, 271-272, 308

economic issues, 152-153, 310-311

fertilizer development, 49-50

Green Revolution, 3, 5, 41, 64, 264, 265-266, 300, 301, 304

hobby or firestick farming, 25-26

and human health, 43

and mutation of crops, 28, 30, 31-32, 37-38, 42, 43, 51

patents and, 133-134

plowing practices, 271-272

and population growth, 42-43, 62-63

Agriculture Canada Research Station, 236

Agrobacterium tumefasciens, 5, 83, 123-127, 129, 130, 147, 174, 225, 276, 285

Alfalfa, 276

All-America Selections, 171, 235

Allergies and allergens, 4, 111, 177

chitinase, 183

common traits of proteins, 189

conventionally bred plants, 187-188, 190, 254

desensitization, 186, 253

2S high-methionine albumins, 189, 190-191, 197

immunoglobulin E reaction, 185-186, 189, 191, 196

incidence in humans, 184-185, 253

lectins, 180

in microbial proteins, 184

peanuts, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190

problem foods, 185, 186, 187-188, 198

reaction process, 185-186

StarLink corn case, 191-196, 197

suppression in GM foods, 198-199

testing for, 189-190, 191, 194, 196

thioredoxin and, 198

“traditional foods,” 187-188

Altieri, Miguel, 260

Aluminum tolerance, 308-309

Ambrosoli, Mauro, 133, 134, 271

American Medical Association, 161, 190

American Soybean Association, 273-274

Ames, Bruce, 253-254

Ames test for carcinogens, 253

Ammann, Klaus, 9, 17, 19, 231, 235, 269

Anderson, Edgar, 24, 29, 30, 34, 67

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, 146-147

Antibiotic resistance, 114, 213

marker genes, 4, 109-110, 119, 125-126, 149, 156, 160-163

Antibiotics, 111, 120, 248, 250

Aphids, 130, 138, 167, 281-283, 284, 285-286

Apple, 24, 53-54, 71, 72, 108-109, 112, 231, 259-260, 280-281

Apricot, 186, 188, 280

Aquinas, Thomas, 72

Arabidopsis thaliana, 5, 82, 85, 93-94, 123, 174, 298, 304

Arable farming, 30

Arber, Werner, 115

Aristotle, 68

Arkansas Children’s Hospitals, 198

Asgrow Seeds, 138, 140

Auxins, 11, 275

Aventis, 151, 191, 195, 212, 219

Aventis CropScience, 194, 205, 297

Avery, Dennis, 264-265, 303

Avery, Oswald, 79

B

Bacillus anthracis, 213-214, 254

Bacillus cereus, 193, 213, 254

Bacillus thuringiensis. See also Bt crops and pesticides

Cry proteins, 192-194, 195-196, 203, 205, 206, 207-208, 213, 225

toxins in pesticides from, 192, 202, 254

Bacteria. See also Plasmids;

individual species

allergenic proteins, 184

antibiotic resistance, 4, 109-110, 119, 125-126, 149, 156, 160-163

cell structure, 86-87

crude-oil-eating, 136

DNA, 88

evolution, 95

gene promoters, 164

genetically engineered, 3

herbicide degrading, 275-276

horizontal gene transfer to humans, 159-163

human consumption of, 184

hybrids, 113

ice-minus, 145-146, 148

natural genetic engineer, 123-127

nitrogen-fixing, 50, 95, 123, 148, 257, 259, 272

patents on, 135-136

reproduction, 5, 112, 124, 143

root-protecting, 272

safety of recombinant DNA technology with, 143-144, 184

thermophilic, 122

transcription and translation in, 89-90

virulence principle, 124, 125

Bacteriophages, 79-80, 112-115, 117, 118-120

M13, 157-158

Bailey, Liberty Hyde, 20-21

Balfour, Eve, 246

Barley, 5, 17, 18, 19, 24, 42, 98, 198, 278

Barry, Gerard, 296

BASF, 18, 151, 277

Bateson, William, 56, 76

Beachell, Hank, 65

Beachy, Roger, 129-132, 133, 138, 153, 164, 290, 291, 293

Beadle, George, 34-35, 37, 38, 79, 97, 98, 99

Beans, 10, 26, 75, 168, 177

Beard, John, 184, 297, 298, 299

Beer, 17, 19

Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, 142

Berg, Paul, 115, 142

Berthaud, Julian, 242

Bertsch, Walter, 12

Bessey, C. F., 68

Beta carotene

in corn, 3, 296-297

in daffodils, 4, 127

in rice, 1-8, 9, 20, 66, 73, 126-127, 149, 152-153, 163, 184

Beyer, Peter, 4, 6, 7, 152-153

BIO, 240-241

Biodiversity, 315

gene flow and, 240-244

herbicide-tolerant crops and, 283-284

Biodynamic agriculture movement, 246, 257

Biofortification of crops, 296-300, 303

Biolistics Inc., 138

Biosolids, 249, 250, 258, 259

“Biotechnology” term

origin of, 60, 111

and public opinion, 287

Blackberry, Iceberg, 1, 8, 20, 54

Bob’s Red Mill Natural Foods, 16

Bolivia

organic farming, 260-261

water wars, 263

Borlaug, Norman, 47, 63-64, 65, 66, 183, 264, 265, 300, 311

Bouis, Howarth, 297

Boussingault, Jean-Baptiste, 50

Boyer, Herbert, 109-110, 119, 125, 127, 142, 161

Brassica napus, 71, 236, 239.

See also Rape and rapeseed

Brassica oleracea, 69-71, 107, 239

Brassica rapus, 239

Braun, Armin, 124

Brazil, 266, 292

Brazil nuts, 189, 191, 197

Breeding. See Selective breeding

Bridges, C. B., 78

Broccoli, 69, 70, 72, 73, 217-218

Brookhaven National Laboratory, 9

Bt crops and pesticides, 292

gene flow, 233

grower/stewardship agreements, 218-220

and Monarch butterfly, 203-209, 210, 211

pest resistance to, 209-212, 213, 214, 215-221, 295-296

pesticide usage, 211-212

refugia requirements, 215-221

safety for farmers, 211, 214

testing for toxicity, 193

and yields, 212

Buchanan, Bob, 177, 198

Burbank, Luther, 1, 4, 8, 13, 20, 51-54, 55, 56-58, 62, 105, 134-135, 165, 175

C

C₄ photosynthetic pathway, 307

C. elegans, 123

Cabbage, 24, 69-70, 71, 72, 107, 167, 239

Calgene, 92, 175

California Institute of Technology, 79

Callus cultures, 11-12, 13

CaMV 35S promoter, 131, 133, 137, 147, 163-168, 174, 224, 225, 227, 229, 230, 233

Canadian Oil, 108, 169

Cancer, 164-167, 210, 251, 253-254

Canola, 71, 73, 107-108, 151, 152, 169-170, 234, 236-239, 276, 277, 283

Carbon-fixing enzymes, 306-307

Carlsberg Research Laboratory, 19

Carnegie Institution of Washington, 57, 101

Carrots, 11, 93, 168

Carson, Rachel, 247

Cassava, 168-169, 209, 290

Cassman, Ken, 268, 304

Cauliflower, 1, 69, 70, 71, 167-168

Cauliflower mosaic virus, 131, 147, 166-168

Celery, 168, 186, 209

Celery picker’s rash, 210

Center for Science in the Public Interest, 220, 313

Centers for Disease Control (U.S.), 196, 256

Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT), 224, 230, 233, 241, 242, 243, 297

Cetus Corporation, 120, 121, 122

Chakrabarty, Ananda, 135-136, 137

Chang, Annie, 110

Chapela, Ignacio, 223-230, 233, 240, 241-242, 243

Chapman, John. See Johnny Appleseed

Charles, Prince of Edinburgh and of Wales, 6, 60, 247

Cheese, 111-112

Chemical mutation breeding, 16-18, 30, 62, 96, 148, 249

Cherry, 186, 280

Chickpea, 168

Chicory, 276

Chilton, Mary-Dell, 124, 125, 129, 130

Chimeras, 109-127.

See also Grafting

Chitinase, 93, 183

Chloroplasts, 87, 160, 274

Chocolate, 24

Chromosome doubling technique, 16.

See also Colchicine

Chromosomes, 76, 77, 88, 96, 97, 99, 104.

See also DNA;

Genes

Chymosin, 111-112

City University of New York, 3

Classification of cultivated species, 67-69

Clearfield, 15, 18, 277-278

Cloning. See also Gene transfer;

Grafting;

Tissue culture cloning

high school experiments, 118-119

in nature, 9, 51, 53, 112

with phages, 112-115, 118-120

with plasmids, 117-118, 119

public fears, 142

viral coat protein sequence, 130, 153

Coat protein-mediated resistance, 130-131, 138-140, 153, 163-168, 284-285, 290

Cocking, E. C., 13

Coconut milk, 11-12

Codex Alimentarius Commission, 252-253

Codon optimization method, 291

Codons and anticodons, 80-81, 89-90, 94, 123

Coffee, 24, 58, 168, 254, 311-312

Cohen, Joel, 42, 290, 304

Cohen, Mark Nathan, 43

Cohen, Stanley, 109-111, 119, 125, 127, 142, 161

Colchicine, 16-17, 30, 62, 96, 249

Cold Spring Harbor Symposium, 101

Cole, Herb, 171-172

Collins, G. N., 32-34

Color Additives Amendment, 148

Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station, 278

Colorado State University, 172, 173, 211

Columbia University, 76

Columbus, Christopher, 32

Columbus, Diego, 41

Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 61, 265

Conservation Technology Information Center, 271, 273

Conservation tillage, 271-274, 277

Consumers Union, 161, 164, 173, 251

Conway, Gordon, 264, 265-266, 311

Cook, Jim, 183, 191, 214, 267, 269-270, 273, 275, 277, 278

Cooperative Research Center for Australian Weed Management, 238

Coordinated Framework for the Regulation of Biotechnology, 146

Corn, 5, 26.

See also Maize;

Teosinte

allergens, 190, 191-196, 197, 198

Attribute, 208

bans on planting transgenics, 6, 230

Black Mexican Sweet, 100-101

Bt, 148, 151, 156-157, 191-196, 197-198, 202-209, 211-212, 218-221, 224, 227, 229, 241

C₄ gene, 307

Copper Cross, 61

event 176 hybrid, 208

evolution and domestication, 32-41

fumonisins (toxins), 197-198

gene flow, 223-235

Golden, 296-297

herbicide-tolerant, 15, 18, 151, 275, 276, 277, 283

high-protein, 296-297

hybridization, 57-62, 73, 76, 98-99, 234-235, 313

hydroponically grown, 10

Indian Summer, 170-171, 235

Intellicoat Early Plant, 151-152

KnockOut, 208

molecular methods used on, 142, 167

NatureGuard, 208

prize-winning, 60, 61

Roundup Ready, 227

StarLink, 191-196, 197

sweet corn, 58, 234

transformation of, 138

transposons in, 97-105

U.S. acreage in, 6, 41

wet milling, 196

Yieldgard, 208, 227, 295-296

yields, 60, 61, 62

Cornell University, 11, 20, 34, 97, 98, 127, 138, 140, 204, 207, 209, 217, 237, 298, 299

Correns, Carl, 73

Cotton, 6, 151, 152, 209, 218, 219, 276, 292

Council for Biotechnology Information, 7, 149

Creighton, Harriet, 98

Crick, Francis, 80, 102

Cross-hybridization, 234, 238.

See also Gene flow

Cross-protection, 130, 131-132

Crossing over, 77-78, 104

Cry proteins, 192-194, 195-196, 203, 205, 206, 207-208, 214, 225

Cryptic variation, 39-40

Cucumber, 132, 168

Cucumber mosaic virus, 281, 287

Cummins, Joe, 163, 285-286

Cyanobacteria, 87

Cytokinins, 12

D

2,4-D, 275

Daffodil, 4, 5, 9, 123, 127

Daisies, 25

Shasta, 1, 56

Damsteegt, Vernon, 282

Darwin, Charles, 1, 11, 48, 50-51, 55, 56, 72, 75, 76, 102

Datta, Karabi and Swapan, 5, 20, 66

Davenport, Charles, 57

Davis, Stuart, 31, 32

DDT, 247, 251

De Vries, Hugo, 16, 56, 57, 73, 74-75, 77

Developing countries

big-business concerns of, 292

food security in, 5, 8, 260-261, 267, 288-289

rejection of GM foods, 309-310

Diamond, Jared, 26-27, 32, 42, 43

Diamondback moths, 217-218, 219

Diploids, 28

DNA. See also Chromosomes;

Genes;

Genomes

chimeric molecules, 109-110

codons and anticodons, 80-81, 89-90, 94, 123

copying process, 36, 80, 88, 120-123

cross-species comparison, 85, 86-87, 159-160

discovery, 79

fingerprinting, 116

herring sperm, 11-12

homologous recombination, 113, 114

human daily consumption from food, 155

introgression, 224-225, 226, 241, 244

introns and exons, 82, 88

“junk,” 82-83

methylation, 104-105, 181

patents on cloned sequences, 137

plant, 167

recombination hotspots, 165

satellite, 82-83

sequencing, 37, 137

structure, 35, 79-82, 155

DNA Plant Technology Corporation, 91

Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 69

Doebley, John, 35-37, 40

Doerfler, Walter, 157-158

Domestication of wild species, 23, 25-26.

See also Evolution

crucial alleles, 43-44

and mutations, 26-27, 37-38

Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, 132, 198, 291, 292, 298

Double-cross method, 61

Double fertilization, 232

Dow AgroSciences, 205, 212, 219, 297

Downey, Keith, 107, 236, 237

Drosophila, 77-78, 82, 123

Duchy Originals, 247

Dunsmuir, Pam, 91, 92, 94

DuPont, 151, 205, 219, 238

Dussoix, Daisy, 115

Duvick, Don, 61-62, 234-235

E

East, Edmund M., 34, 61, 76

Ecogene, 269

Ehrlich, Paul, 301

Emerson, Rollins, 33-34, 37, 99-100

Environmental Defense Fund, 212

Epigenetic changes, 104-105, 181

Ereky, Karl, 60

Esherichia coli, 85, 110, 111, 113, 142, 180, 255

Euchleana mexicana, 32, 40, 67.

See also Teosinte

Euchleana parviglumis, 40

European corn borer, 193, 197, 211-212, 213, 215, 216, 218, 295

European Union, ban on GM food, 6, 224, 230, 277, 310-311

Evans, Lloyd, 45

Evolution

bottleneck, 30

of crops, 26-43, 173-174

evidence of species relationships, 85-91, 95

farming practices and, 28, 30, 31-32, 37-38, 42, 43

molecular clock, 39

transposons and, 102-103, 105

Exons, 82, 88

F

F1 generation, 73-74

Fagan, John, 195

Farm Scale Evaluations (U.K.), 283

Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 148

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, 147

Federal Interagency Committee on Recombinant DNA Research, 144

Federal Plant Pest Act of 1957, 146

Federici, Brian, 192, 193, 197

Ferreira, Steve, 139

Fertilizers, 49-50, 63, 248-249, 257-259, 276

Fire-colored beetle, 93-94

Firestick farming, 25

Fish genes in tomato, 91-94, 187

Fitch, Maureen, 139

FlavrSavr tomato, 92, 175

Folate, 298

Food Additives Amendment, 148

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 161, 187, 189, 190, 253, 303

Food and Drug Administration (U.S.), 6, 148-149, 169, 170, 173, 188, 195, 255

Food First, 225

Food poisoning, 180, 254, 255, 256

Food safety. See also Safety of GM crops

bacterial threats, 254-256

irradiation and, 248, 250, 256

Food security. See also Sustainable agriculture

consumption and waste issues, 267-268, 302-303

in developing countries, 5, 8, 260-261, 267, 288-289

economic issues, 310-311

per person availability, 303

population growth and, 302-303

Forster, B. P., 17

Fraley, Robert, 130-131, 132, 290

Frankenfood, 7, 8

Fredrickson, Donald, 143-145

Freed, David, 180

French Revolution, 24

Frick, Oscar, 198

Friends of the Earth, 195, 196, 204, 207

Fumonisins, 197-198

G

Galanthus nivalis agglutin, 179

Galls, 123-124

Gaut, Brandon, 39

Gauthieret, Roger, 11

Gel electrophoresis, 116, 122, 225

Gene flow

and biodiversity, 240-244

from GM crops to landraces, 223-230, 240-244

measurement of, 237-238, 269

pollen dispersion and, 231-233

public concerns, 231, 233

Gene gun, 138, 139

Gene pools of crops, preservation, 241-242

Gene promoters, 4, 82, 130-131

CaMV 35S, 131, 133, 137, 147, 163-168, 174, 224, 225, 227, 229, 230, 233

stability, 225, 228

Gene stacking, 238-239

Gene transfer, 5.

See also Cloning;

Recombinant DNA technology

horizontal, from bacteria to humans, 155-163

in nature, 124-127

procedures in plants, 109-110, 129-132, 138, 139

rates in brassicas, 236-237

transduction, 112-115

vectors, 83, 112-115, 109-110, 124-127, 129-131, 139

Genentech, 111

General Electric, 135-136

Genes

antisense, 92

cross-species comparison, 85-86, 96, 102, 103, 159

crossing over, 77-78, 104

digestion process, 155-159

early concepts, 75-76

extra copies, 95-96, 103-104

linkage groups, 78-79

mapping, 78, 79, 97, 98, 101, 102

naming, 37

one-gene, one-enzyme hypothesis, 34, 79, 98

and proteins, 79-81, 88

retrotransposons, 102

sequencing, 123

silent, 103

transcripts, 82

transposons, 36, 83, 97-105, 125, 164, 174

Genetic engineering. See also Molecular breeding methods;

Recombinant DNA technology

in nature, 123-127

Genetic ID, 195

Genetically modified (GM) food plants. See also Molecular breeding methods;

Recombinant DNA technology;

Safety of GM crops;

individual crops

acreage planted in, 151, 152, 211-212, 221, 230-231

bans on, 6, 224, 230, 277, 310-311

crucial alleles, 43-44

donated by multinational corporations, 152-153, 291, 293, 296, 297

economic issues, 152-153, 215, 286-287, 288, 310-311

field trials, 140, 171, 173, 183, 283-284, 291, 293

and food security in developing

countries, 5, 8, 296, 311

gene flow to landraces, 223-230

genetic stability of crops, 174-175

inputs for growing, 6-7

licensing restrictions on cultivation, 151-152, 194

multinational corporations vs. small family farmers, 151, 152-153, 292

myths and misconceptions, 7, 8, 9-10, 15, 71-72, 91-92, 155, 163-168, 170, 187, 285-287, 292, 293, 313-314

natural mutations, 1, 9, 26-27, 30, 31, 36, 37-38

nutrient content and bioavailability, 4, 183-184, 296-300

organic farming and, 249

public opinion on, 311-314

safety-enhancing attributes of, 197-199, 210, 285-286

and substantial equivalence, 148-149, 170-171, 173

yield-improving strategies, 303-309

Genomes, 29, 81

cross-species comparison, 85-86

exons and introns, 82

extra copies, 96

human, 28, 39, 82, 85, 102, 159-160

sequencing, 81-82, 123, 124-125, 304

Genotype, 75

Genus, 68

Giddings, Val, 240-241, 243

Gilbert, Harry, 157, 158

Gildow, Fred, 281

Giles, W. F., 71

Glufosinate, 151, 238, 276, 283

Glycoalkaloids, 44-45, 168, 171-172, 181, 209

Glyphosate, 15, 151, 238, 240, 271, 274-275

GM Science Review Panel (U.K.), 162

Goat grass. See Aegilops spp.

Goklany, Indur, 264

Goldburg, Rebecca, 212

Gonsalves, Dennis, 138, 139, 150, 152, 286

Goodman, Howard, 110

Goodman, Major, 242

Gordon, Milton, 124, 213

Grafting, 52-53, 108-109, 112, 127

Grapefruit, 1-2, 8, 9, 20

Green Revolution, 3, 5, 41, 64, 264, 265-266, 300, 301, 304

Greenhouse gases, 271-272

Greenpeace, 187, 188-189, 204, 207, 299

Gregario, Glenn, 298

Gregory, W. C., 19

Gypsy moths, 192, 193, 205

H

Haas, Jere, 298

Haber, Fritz, 259

Haberlandt, Gottlieb, 10, 16

Haglin, John, 71, 187

Hansen, Michael, 164, 165, 173, 174

Hanson, Victor Davis, 201-202, 210-211, 219, 220, 263

Haploids, 231

Hardin, Garrett, 302

Harlan, Jack R., 23, 27, 29, 30-31, 34, 168, 214, 215

Harvard University, 10, 33, 34, 35, 311

Harvest index, 65

Hawaiian Agricultural Research Center, 139

Health Canada Food Directorate, 170

Health effects. See also Allergies and allergens;

Cancer;

Toxins in foods

agricultural development, 43

of conventionally bred plants, 19

horizontal gene transfer from bacteria to humans and, 159-163, 184

hormesis phenomenon, 253-254

organic foods, 251, 258

of pesticide residues, 253-254, 276

Heiser, Charles, 60

Hemoglobin, in plants, 95

Hensz, Richard, 1-2, 8

Herbicide-resistant weeds, 237

Herbicide-tolerant crops, 15, 17-18, 151, 163, 233, 237-238, 270-271, 273-278, 283-284

Heredity

dominant and recessive traits, 74, 215-217

fruit fly experiments, 77-78

genes and, 74-79

manikin theory, 76

Mendel’s laws, 55-56, 57, 58, 59, 60-61, 73-74, 75, 76-77, 215-217

Herman, Eliot, 198-199

Herrera-Estrella, Luis, 309

Herring sperm DNA, 11-12

Hershey, Al, 79-80

Heterosis, 61

Heterozygous, 59

Hexaploids, 29, 30

High-fructose corn syrup, 111

2S High-methionine albumins, 189, 190-191, 197

Hillman, Gordon, 31, 32

Ho, Mae-Wan, 7, 163-167, 174, 225, 285

Hobby farming, 25, 26

Hokkaido University, 13

Homologous recombination, 78, 113, 114

Homozygous, 59

Hormesis, 253

Horsch, Rob, 125, 131, 290, 291, 292, 296, 297, 299

Howard, Albert, 245-246, 248-249, 250, 251, 257, 258, 266

Hudson Institute, 264, 303

Hybridization. See also Chimeras

of bacteria, 113

chemical mutation methods, 16, 30

double-cross method, 61

genetic stability of hybrids, 173-174

grafting, 52-53, 108-109, 112, 127

intergeneric, 9, 16, 28, 53-54;

see also Species

Mendel’s laws and, 56, 59

opposition to, 52-53, 60, 313

by protoplast fusion, 13-14

wide crosses, 18-19, 28, 105, 173

and yields, 60, 61, 62

Hydroponics, 10, 48, 50

I

Ice-minus bacterium, 145-146

Iltis, Hugh, 38-39

Imidazolinone, 15, 238, 276-277

Immunoglobulin E, 185-186, 189, 191, 196

India, 267, 292

Institute of Plant Industry (India), 245

Institute of Plant Sciences (Switzerland), 5

Institute of Science in Society, 7, 163

Insulin, 3, 111

Integrated farming, 260

International Botanical Congress, 7, 315

International Conference of Plant Breeding and Hybridization, Second, 56

International Food Policy Research Institute, 208, 260-261, 297

International Potato Center, 290

International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), 3, 20, 64-65, 241, 296, 298

International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications, 150-151

Introgression, 224-225, 226, 241, 244

Introns, 82, 88

Irradiation of foods, 248, 250, 256, 314

Iowa State University, 3, 16, 61, 187, 212

Isoflavone, 172-173

Italy, San Marzano tomato, 279, 286, 287

Iwanaga, Masa, 224, 230-231, 233, 243

J

Jack-in-the-Box food poisoning, 255, 256

Jacob, François, 85, 86, 94, 95

James, Philip, 177-178

Jaworski, Ernie, 275, 290

Jennings, Peter, 3

Johannsen, Wilhelm, 75

Johnny Appleseed, 52-53, 60, 72

Johns, Timothy, 45

Jones, Donald F., 60-61

Juma, Calestous, 311-312

Jumping genes. See Transposons

K

Kanamycin, 125, 126, 161

Karmate (tomato-potato hybrid), 13

Karp, David, 188

Kellogg, John Harvey, 188

Kent, Lawrence, 291, 292-293

Kenya

Agricultural Research Institute, 289-290, 291, 292

maize production, 260-261

virus-resistant sweet potato, 288-294

Khush, Gurdev Singh, 65-66

Kidney beans, 180, 209

Kinetin, 12

Kinoshita, T., 13-14

Kishore, Ganesh, 275

Kiwi fruit, 187-188

Kraft Foods, 195

Ku, Maurice, 307

Kucinich, Dennis J., 10, 20, 60, 72

Kumeyaay, 25

L

La Guardia, Fiorello, 134-135

Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 72

Landrace conservation, 98-99, 223-230, 233, 241-243

Lauter, Nick, 40

Lawes, John Bennett, 49-50, 257

Lectins, 168, 177-183, 209

Lederberg, Joshua, 112, 113, 114, 143, 154

Lehrer, Samuel B., 190, 198

Lemaux, Peggy, 198

Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture, 206

Lettuce, 18, 20, 184, 255, 276

Levy, Avraham, 174

Liebig, Justus von, 49, 50, 257

Ligase, 110, 118-119, 229

Lima beans, 168

Lindemann, Julianne, 146

Lindow, Steven, 146

Linnaeus, Carl, 68

Listeria, 255

Lobitz, Robert, 1

Losey, John, 204-205, 206, 207, 209

Louis XVI, King of France, 23

M

Maan, Shivcharan S., 141, 147

MacLeod, Colin, 79

MacNeish, Richard, 35

Mad Cow disease, 246

Maize. See also Corn

archaeological discoveries, 40-41

beta carotene in, 3, 296-297

classification of species, 67

evolution and domestication, 32-41

gene flow in, 224-225, 233

genetics experiments, 97-101

landrace conservation, 98-99, 223-230, 233, 241-243

teosinte crosses, 32, 34-35, 40, 223

Tripsacum crosses, 34

Makoto, Matsuoka, 65

Malthus, Thomas, 47-48, 265

Mangelsdorf, Paul, 34-35

Manioc, 168-169

Mannose sugars, 163, 180

Manshardt, Richard, 139

Margulis, Lynn, 159-160

Marie Antoinette, 23, 24, 261

Martineau, Belinda, 92

Martinez-Soriano, Juan Pablo, 233

Maryanski, Jim, 171, 173

Mayr, Ernst, 68

McCarty, Maclyn, 79

McClintock, Barbara, 83, 97-105, 164

McFadden, Sam, 30

Melchers, Georg, 13

Mendel, Gregor, 55-56, 57, 58, 59, 60-61, 73-74, 75, 76-77, 81, 102, 215-216

Messenger RNA, 89-90

Mexico

dwarf wheat, 63-64

maize, 40-41, 223-230, 233, 236

Microsatellites, 36, 40

Milkweed, 203-209, 236

Mills, Wilford, 171-172

Mitochondria, 87, 159-160

Molecular breeding methods. See also Recombinant DNA technology

conventional breeding methods

compared, 15, 19, 20, 60, 71-72, 78, 171-172, 182-183

culling of rejects, 165-166

disease resistance in crops, 128-132

marker genes, 4, 149, 156, 160-163

mutation breeding methods compared, 9-10, 19, 20, 78, 108, 141, 238

regulatory oversight, 140-150

“release experiments,” 145-146, 147

safety precautions, 20, 66, 142, 146

toxicity testing, 193

Molecular clock, 39

Monarch butterfly, 203-209

Monsanto, 15, 18, 92, 125, 130, 131, 133, 138, 140, 151, 152, 172, 173, 205, 208, 212, 219, 227, 273, 274, 275, 276, 290, 291-292, 293-294, 295, 296, 297, 313

Morel, Georges, 12, 124

Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 76-77, 78

Mori, K., 13-14

Morrison, L. A., 67-68

Morrow, John, 110

Motoyui, Ashikara, 65

Mouse-ear cress. See Arabidopsis thaliana

Muller, Hermann Joseph, 16

Mullis, Kary, 120-123

Murray, James, 49, 257

Mustards, 167, 168, 189, 239

Mutant Variety Database, 19-20

Mutations and mutation breeding, 56, 62.

See also Somaclonal variation chemical methods, 16-18, 30, 62, 96, 148, 249, 277, 283-284

crop successes, 9, 16-18, 20, 62, 238

cryptic variation (hidden mutations), 39-40

database of varieties, 19-21

deleterious, 242

disposal of failures, 18, 141

epigenetic changes, 104-105, 181

farming practices and, 26-27, 28, 30, 31-32, 37-38, 42, 43, 51, 209, 210

field testing, 18, 141-142

fruit fly experiments, 77-78

and human health, 19

microsatellites, 36, 40

molecular breeding methods compared, 9-10, 19, 20, 78, 108, 141, 238, 277-278, 283-284

in nature, 1, 9, 26-27, 30, 31, 36, 37-38, 53, 81, 96

point mutations, 36, 102-103

radiation methods, 9-10, 14-16, 105, 141, 256

and regulatory oversight, 18-19, 141, 148, 283-284

safety issues, 18, 277-278

transposons and, 36, 83, 102-103, 105

unstable, 99-101

Mwanawasa, Levy, 309-310

Mycogen, 208, 212

N

Nagoya University, 65, 307

National Academy of Sciences (NAS), 98, 99, 101, 142, 149

National Agricultural Biotechnology Council, 112

National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy, 212

National Coalition Against the Misuse of Pesticides, 249

National Corn Exposition, 60

National Corn Growers’ Association, 313

National Institute of Agrobiological Resources, 307

National Institutes of Health (NIH), 143-144, 186

National Organic Standards Board, 248, 249, 250

National Plant Germplasm System (U.S.), 241

National Polytechnic Institute (Mexico), 233, 309

Natural and health foods. See also Organic farming and foods

breeding methods, 9, 16, 19, 108

Natural selection, theory of, 51, 72-73, 86.

See also Evolution

Nature (journal), 7, 82, 204, 206, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 230

Nature Biotechnology (journal), 240-241

Nester, Eugene, 124, 125

Nestle, Marion, 187, 191

New York Times, 7, 8, 204, 224, 228, 230, 252, 263

Nitrogen

fertilizers, 49, 50, 258-259, 304-305

Nitrogen-fixing

bacteria, 50, 95, 123, 148, 257, 259, 304-305

genes, 305-306

NOS terminator sequence, 225, 226

Novartis Agribusiness, 7, 208

O

Ohio State University, 297

Olives and olive oil, 168, 169

O’Mara, F. G., 16, 62

Open University (U.K.), 163

Operons, 125

Orange, 24, 53

Orchids, 12, 18

Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station, 278

Organic farming and foods

biodynamic movement, 246, 257

biotechnology and, 249, 250, 269-274

conventionally grown foods compared, 251-256

costs issues, 250-252, 259-260

in developing countries, 260-261

health effects, 251, 258

market for, 247

Organic Rule and, 248-251, 256, 259, 266, 271

and pesticides, 192, 202, 209, 214, 217, 247, 251-252, 254, 255

philosophy, 245-247, 248, 249, 255

plant breeding techniques, 17

safety of, 254-256

soil fertility and, 246, 257-259

sustainability, 246, 259-261, 264, 266, 268-269, 270

testing, 249

yields, 260

Organic Food Production Act, 248

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 179, 183

Oryza sativa, 2, 6-7, 69

P

Paarlberg, Robert, 155, 168, 169, 289, 292

Padgette, Steve, 275

Papaya, 132, 138-140, 149, 150, 151, 153, 309

Papaya ringspot virus, 138-140, 285

Pariza, Michael W., 209-210

Parmentier, Antoine Augustin, 23-24, 44, 45

Parrot, Wayne, 223

Patents, 133

agricultural development, 49, 133-134

on bacteria, 135-136

on cloned DNA sequences, 137

gene promoters, 131

Golden Rice, 4, 7

hybridization method for wheat, 141

and licensing of technology, 138, 140, 151-152

standards for living organisms, 133-137

trade secrets compared, 133

virus resistance techniques, 132, 290

PCR. See Polymerase chain reaction

Peach, 168, 186, 280-282, 284

Peanut, 19, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 198

Pear, 109, 168

Peas, 55, 57, 168, 177

Pennsylvania State University, 171, 172, 184, 281, 298

Pesticide Amendment (1954), 148

Pesticides. See also Bt crops and pesticides;

Herbicide-tolerant crops;

specific products

mechanisms of action, 274, 275, 276-277

natural, 254

and nontarget species, 201-209

organic farming and, 192, 202, 209, 214, 217, 247, 251-252, 254, 255

residues in food, 251-253

resistance to, 209-212, 213

risk assessment, 252-253

Petunia, 4, 62, 131, 275

Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology, 207, 313

Phenotype, 75

Photosynthesis, 11, 48-49, 198

carbon-fixing enzymes, 306-307

Phytohemagglutini, 180

Pinstrup-Andersen, Per, 129, 208-209, 260-261

Pioneer Hi-Bred Corn Company, 61, 62, 212, 313

Pioneer Hi-Bred International, 190-191, 212, 234, 297

Plant cells, 87-88

Plant hormones, 10-12.

See also Auxins;

Cytokinins

Plant-incorporated protectant, 148

Plant Protection Act of 1930 (U.S.), 135, 137

Plant Quarantine Act of 1912, 146

Plant regeneration, 10-12, 14

Plant sex, 5.

See also Gene flow

Plant Variety Protection Act (U.S.), 135, 137

Plasmids, 109-110, 112-113, 117-118, 119, 123, 124-127, 136, 142, 214

Plum, 53, 132, 186, 280, 282, 284-285

Plum pox virus, 280-281, 284-285

Pollination. See Gene flow;

Plant sex

PolyA tail, 89

Polygalacturonase, 92

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 120-123, 157, 195, 225, 226, 228-229

Polyploids, 44, 137

Polysaccharides, 93

Population growth

agricultural development and, 42-43, 62-63

and arable land, 266-267

ecological footprint, 267

and food security, 302-303

Malthusian principle, 47-48, 301

and species losses, 301

Post-transcriptional gene silencing, 131-132, 285

Potatoes

All Red, 1, 45

cloning methods, 12, 112

cultivated species, 44, 45

Delta Gold, 171

domestication, 24, 26, 44, 45

growing conditions, 44

herbicide-tolerant, 276

hybridization, 44

Idaho, 1, 45, 51, 135

irradiation, 256

Lenape, 171-172, 183

myths and superstitions, 23

origin, 45

patentability, 134

pest-resistant, 177

“poisoned rat debate,” 177-183

toxins, 44-45, 168, 171-172, 177-183, 209

virus-resistant, 12, 288-294

Potrykus, Ingo, 1-2, 4-8, 20, 62, 66, 126-127, 152-153, 163, 184, 279, 299-301, 304

Priestley, Joseph, 48, 257

Primers, 122-123, 228

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 206-207, 208

Prokaryotes, 96

Proteins, 79.

See also specific proteins

allergens, 184, 189

antifreeze, 92-93, 94

cellular role, 87, 90

cross-species similarities, 90-91, 94, 95

DNA methylation and binding to genes, 105

domains, 90

fluorescent, 162

folding, 90

gene coding for, 79-81, 88

hemoglobin, 95

ice-nucleating, 145-146, 148

mitochondrial, 87

most abundant, 306

therapeutic, 120

transcription and translation process, 88-90, 91, 94

Protoplasts, 13-14.

See also Tissue culture cloning

Pseudomonas fluorescens, 272

Pseudomonas putida, 136

Pseudomonas syringae, 145-146

Psoralens, 168, 209

Puccinia, 214-215.

See also Rusts

Pugh, Evan, 49, 50

Purdue University, 271

Purnell, Fred S., 134-135

Pusztai, Arpad, 177-183

Q

Qaim, Matin, 288

Quist, David, 223-230, 233, 240, 241-242

R

Radiation mutation breeding, 9-10, 14-16, 105, 141, 256

Rambutans, 188, 248, 256

Rape and rapeseed, 107-108, 169, 236

Ravelonandro, Michel, 284

Raven, Peter, 7, 13, 243, 244, 261, 267, 315

Ray, John, 69

Recombinant DNA technology. See also Cloning;

Gene transfer;

Molecular breeding methods

chimeras, 109-127

gene amplification, 117-123

gene sorting, 116

gene splicing, 109-111, 117-118, 123

high school experiments, 116-120

medical contributions, 3, 111, 120, 143

NAS risk assessment, 149-150

NIH risk assessment and guidelines, 143-144

public fears, 142-143

safety of, 143-144, 184

Recombination hotspots, 165

Reeves, Robert, 34

Refuges/refugia, 208, 215-221

Regulation of GM crops

conventionally bred crops compared, 18-19, 140-150, 278, 298

costs of compliance, 152-153, 215, 286-287

disposal of rejected plants, 141

EPA authority, 147-148, 207, 220

exemptions, 286

FDA authority, 148-149, 169

of field tests, 141, 146, 286-287

generally recognized as safe standard (GRAS), 169

of “new” organisms, 147-148

pest resistance management plan, 148, 215-221

process-oriented, 140-150, 153-154

product approval time, 150

and public fears, 142-143, 154, 314

substantial equivalence standard, 148-149, 170-171, 173

USDA authority, 146-147

Restriction enzymes, 109-110, 115, 116-117, 119, 127, 228-229

Rhizobium, 123, 257

Rhoades, Marcus, 100-101

Rice, 123, 261.

See also Oryza sativa

allergies, 186, 198

BR29, 20

Calrose 76, 17

Dee-geo-woo-gen, 65

domestication, 24, 26

dwarf varieties, 64-65

Golden (beta carotene), 1-8, 9, 20, 66, 73, 126-127, 149, 152-153, 163, 184, 296, 299-300

herbicide-tolerant, 276, 277

Indica-Japonica hybrids, 69

IR36, 65-66

IR68144 (iron-rich), 298-299, 300

IR8, 3, 65

lodging, 65

nutrient bioavailability, 184, 298

radiation mutation breeding, 17, 20

pest resistance, 13-14, 65, 179

Peta, 65

salt-tolerant, 20

species and varieties, 2, 6-7, 69

as staple food, 2, 20

tissue culture cloning, 12-15

virus resistance, 132

yields, 66, 307

Rieger, Mary, 238

Rockefeller Foundation, 2, 3, 4, 5, 63, 64, 292, 296, 311

Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, 79, 124

Rodale, Jerome, 246, 250, 266

Rogers, Stephen, 130, 132, 290

Rothamsted Research Institute, 50, 55, 271

Roundup (glyphosate), 15, 18, 138, 148, 151, 157, 163, 172, 240, 270, 271, 273-276, 277, 278, 277

Roush, Richard T., 220

Rowett Research Institute (Scotland), 177-178, 180

Rubisco (RuBP carboxylase), 306-309

Rural Advancement Foundation International, 8

Russell, Robert, 299

Rusts, 63, 64, 183, 214-215

Rutgers University, 39

Ryan, Angela, 163

Rye, 5, 16, 93.

See also Triticale

S

Sachs, Eric, 295

Sachs, Julius von, 10, 48-49, 50, 85, 107, 257

Safety of GM crops

allergens, 4, 177, 180, 183-196

antibiotic-resistance gene markers and, 160-163

assessment of, 169-175, 177-183, 184, 191, 195, 269, 298-299

CaMV 35S gene promoter and, 163-168, 225, 228

cancer claims, 164-167, 168, 172

conventionally bred plants compared, 18, 187-188, 190, 254-255, 298-299

(GRAS) standards, generally recognized as safe, 169

and horizontal gene transfer, 155-16

methodological issues in studies, 157-159, 178-183, 204-205, 225-229

natural toxins and, 168-169, 177-183

for nontarget species, 202-209

organically grown crops compared, 254-256

pathogen use in recombinant DNA technology, 143-144, 163-168, 184, 213-214

“poisoned rat debate,” 177-183

substantial equivalence standard and, 170-171

Sakamura, T., 28

Sala, Francesco, 286

Salmon, S. C., 64

Salt-tolerant crops, 17, 20

Sanford, John, 127, 138

Saussure, Theodore de, 48, 257

Schell, Jef, 124, 125, 130

Schimke, Robert, 110

Schioler, Ebbe, 129, 261

Schubert, Karel, 298

Science (journal), 7, 82, 142, 177, 206, 225, 228

Scorza, Ralph, 284

Scottish Crop Research Institute, 17, 180

Sears, Ernest, 30

Sears, Mark, 208

Selective breeding. See also Hybridization;

Molecular breeding methods;

other specific methods

burbanking, 21, 54

history of, 8-15, 21, 107

“natural” vs. “unnatural,” 8-21, 107, 129

for nutrition, 5

for virus resistance, 129-132

Sharka. See Plum pox virus

Shelton, Anthony, 205, 209, 212, 217, 220, 221

Shipak, Florence, 25

Shiyu, Leslie, 109

Shull, George Harrison, 57-59, 60, 61

Silent genes, 103, 131-132

Skoog, Folke, 11-12

Slightom, Jerry, 138

Slow Food movement, 286-287

Smil, Vaclav, 258, 302

Snowdrop, 177.

See also Galanthus nivalis agglutin

Society of Toxicologists, 160-161

Soil

acidification, 308-309

crumb structure, 272, 273, 274

ecology, 272-273

EPSP synthase in, 274-275

erosion, 270-271

fertility, 49, 245-246, 248, 250, 257-259

GM organisms, 183

nitrogen cycle, 257-258

nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 50, 257, 259, 272

organic farming and, 246, 257-259

root-protecting bacteria, 272

salinization, 307-308

streptomycete, 276

Solanum andigena, 45, 168

Solanum tuberosum, 45.

See also Potatoes

Somaclonal variation, 15, 141-142, 148, 181-182, 183, 277, 283-284.

See also Mutations and mutation breeding;

Tissue culture cloning

Soybeans, 275

allergens, 186, 190-191, 197, 198-199

isoflavone content, 172-173

nutrient content, 191

Roundup Ready, 138, 148, 151, 157, 172, 240, 270, 273-274, 275-276, 277, 292

Species

crossing barriers between, 71-78, 124, 127

defining, 68-69, 72

Sport, 1, 108.

See also Mutations and mutation breeding

Squash, 26, 38, 132, 138, 165, 168, 290

Stadler, Louis, 16, 98, 101

Stanford University, 18, 109, 110, 115, 145, 312

Stark, Paul, 134-135

Stebbins, Ledyard, 102

Stefansson, Baldur, 107

Steiner, Rudolf, 246

Steward, F. C., 11

Stone, Robert, 143

Strawberry, 146, 168, 276

Streptomycete, 276

Sturtevant, Alfred, 77, 78, 101

Sugar beet, 132, 276, 283

Sugarcane, 276

Superphosphate of lime, 49-50

Sustainable agriculture

arable land and, 266-267

biotechnology and, 268-269

Bt crops and, 13, 202-209, 211, 215-221

consumption and waste issues, 267-268, 302-303

conventional farming methods and, 268, 295, 314-316

cost-effectiveness, 270

direct seeding, 273

herbicide-tolerant crops and, 270-271, 273-278

no-till methods, 270-274, 275, 277-278

organic farming methods and, 246, 259-261, 264, 266, 268-269, 270

organo-transgenic methods, 269-274

pest resistance management, 215-221, 278, 295-296

population growth and, 266-267

refuges/refugia, 208, 215-221

rotations, 215-221, 278

Swedenborgians, 52-53, 72

Sweet potato, 288-294

Sweet potato feathery mottle virus, 291

Syngenta Seeds, Inc., 7, 151, 205, 208, 219

T

Tabashnik, Bruce, 220-221

Takebe, I., 13

Taq polymerase, 122

Tatum, Edward, 79

Taxonomists, 29, 67

Taylor, Steven, 183, 190, 191, 196

Tea, 168

Teosinte, 58

classification, 67, 68

evolution of maize from, 32-41, 76, 223

geographical area, 33, 40-42, 236

modern maize compared, 33, 233-234

tb1 gene, 38, 39, 41

tga1 gene, 37, 39

Tetraploids, 28

Texas A&M University, 1

Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, 278

Thomashow, Linda, 272

Tissue culture cloning, 139

anther method, 14-15

discovery, 12

growth-promoting factors, 10-12

and mutations, 13, 105, 181-182;

see also Somaclonal variation

protoplast fusion method, 12-14

and regulatory oversight, 141, 148

Tobacco, 5, 11, 13, 24, 126, 131

Tobacco mosaic virus, 130, 131

Toenniessen, Gary, 3-4, 311

Tomato, 26, 91-94, 131, 132, 175, 276, 279, 287

Tomato-eggplant hybrid, 13

Tomato fern leaf virus, 279, 286-287

Tomato mosaic virus, 130, 131

Tomoffel (tomato-potato hybrid), 13

Toxic Substance Control Act, 147

Toxins in foods, 44-45, 168-169, 171-172, 179-180, 182, 197-198, 209-210, 255

testing for, 172-173, 193

Transfer-DNA, 125, 131, 132, 174

Transfer RNA, 90

Transformation, 131, 138, 147

Transgene, 112

Transposons, 36, 83, 97-105, 125, 164, 174

Triticale, 9, 16, 19, 20, 62, 73, 96

Triticum aestivum, 29, 141

Triticum turgidum, 28

Triticum urartu, 28

Tufts University, 298, 299

Tulane University, 190, 198

Tull, Jethro, 133-134

U

Union of Concerned Scientists, 204, 207

United Nations Environment Programme, 263

University College London, 31

University of Adelaide, 238

University of Arizona, 220-221

University of Arkansas, 198, 240

University of Bern Botanical Gardens, 9, 231, 235, 269

University of Bonn, 288

University of California

Berkeley, 146, 198, 223, 240

Davis, 167, 220

San Francisco, 109, 198

University of Cologne, 157

University of Geneva, 115

University of Ghent, 124, 125, 130

University of Hawaii, 139, 140

University of Illinois, 30

University of Leeds, 156

University of Liverpool, 3

University of Milan, 286

University of Nairobi, 290

University of Nebraska, 183, 190, 205, 268

University of Newcastle upon Tyne, 157

University of Washington, 124, 125, 213

University of Western Australia, 238

University of Western Ontario, 163

University of Wisconsin

Madison, 11, 35, 38, 112, 209

Parkside, 25

Upjohn Company, 138

U.S. Agency for International Development, 264, 290, 292, 296

U.S. Department of Agriculture, 53, 64, 281

Bureau of Plant Industry, 32

Foreign Disease-Weed Laboratory, 282

National Organic Program, 248, 250

National Plant Germplasm System, 241

regulatory authority over GM crops, 146-147, 153-154, 195-196, 206, 220

state agricultural experiment stations, 55, 59, 61, 139, 142, 206

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 147-148, 153, 191, 193, 194, 207, 213, 214, 251, 286

U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science, Subcommittee on Basic Research, 162

U.S. Navy, plant exploration expeditions, 54

U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, 55, 134, 136.

See also Patents

V

Van Montagu, Marc, 124, 125

Vectors, 83, 109-110, 112-115, 124-127, 129-131, 139

Venter, Craig, 82, 85

Virgil (Roman poet), 133, 134

Virus resistance

C-5 plum tree, 284-285

coat protein-mediated, 130-131, 138-140, 153, 163-168, 284-286, 290

codon optimization method, 291

papaya, 132, 138-140, 149, 150, 151, 153, 285-286

patents on plants, 133, 290

post-transcriptional gene silencing, 131-132

sweet potato, 288-294

Viruses, plant

coat protein, 130

human health effects of eating, 166-168

structure, 167

Vitamin A deficiency, 2, 4

W

Wallace, Henry A., 61, 62-63

Wallace, Henry C., 61

Wambugu, Florence, 288, 289-292, 293-294, 295, 296

Wampanoag, 25

Washington State University, 64, 183, 259-260, 267, 272, 307

Washington University, St. Louis, 125, 129

Watermelon, 24

New Queen, 171

seedless, 16-17, 96

Watson, James, 80, 102, 143

Weeds. See also Herbicide-tolerant crops

gene flow, 235-236, 238, 239

management in orchards, 282-283

no-till agriculture and, 273-274

resistance to herbicides, 238, 239-240

wide crosses with, 18-19, 28, 105, 173

Weizmann Institute, 174

Weller, Dave, 272

Went, Frits W., 11

Wettstein, Dieter von, 19

Wheat, 5.

See also Triticum spp.

Above, 17-18, 277

allergies, 186, 198

bread, 17-18, 29-30, 73

Ceres, 215

classification of species, 67-68

Creso, 17, 20

drought resistance and cold

tolerance, 29

durum, 16, 17, 28-29

dwarf varieties, 63-64

einkorn, 27, 28, 32

emmer, 28, 29, 30

evolution and domestication, 26-32, 42, 173-174

gene flow, 231

hard red winter, 17-18

harvesting techniques, 31-32

herbicide-tolerant, 17-18, 270-271, 276, 277, 278

Hope, 215

lodging, 63-64

Marquis, 215

nitrogen-fixing enzyme, 305-306

Norin, 64

rust-resistant, 64, 183, 214-215, 241

selective breeding methods, 9-10, 16, 17, 30, 141, 147, 148

spelt, 29, 30

Thatcher, 215

yields, 63, 64

Wilkins, Maurice, 80

Wine grapes, 24, 201-203, 210-211

Wöhler, Friedrich, 49, 50, 257

Workshop on Safeguards for Planned Introduction of Transgenic Oilseed Crucifers, 237

World Bank Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, 297

World Health Organization, 2, 161, 187, 189, 190, 253

World Resources Institute, 270

Worldwide Fund for Nature, 267

Wotecki, Catherine, 187-188

Y

Ye, Xudong, 127

Youatt, William, 51

Z

Zaire, arable land, 266

Zambia, rejection of GM food shipments, 309-310, 313

Zea mays, 32, 67.

See also Corn;

Maize

Zeneca Agrochemicals, 7

Zimbabwe, rejection of GM food shipments, 309

Zinder, Norton, 112, 113-114

Zohary, Daniel, 26

Zymotechnology, 111