TCRP OVERSIGHT AND PROJECT SELECTION COMMISSION^*

CHAIR

Jeanne Krieg

Eastern Contra Costa Transit Authority (retired)

VICE CHAIR

Jameson Auten

Lane Transit District

SECRETARY/TREASURER

Ryan I. Daniel

St. Cloud Metro Bus

IMMEDIATE PAST CHAIR

Doran J. Barnes

Foothill Transit

MEMBERS

Andrea Burnside

Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority

Julia Castillo

Heart of Iowa Transit Authority

April Chan

San Mateo County Transit District

Desmond Cole

Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority

Carolyn Flowers

InfraStrategies LLC

David Harris

New Mexico Department of Transportation

Tim Healy

Sound Transit

Brendon Hemily

Hemily and Associates

Vince Huerta

East Texas Council of Governments

Joseph Leader

HDR

Benjamin Limmer

Connecticut Department of Transportation

Bacarra Mauldin

Memphis Area Transit Authority

Jessica Mefford-Miller

Valley Metro

Raymond Melleady

USSC Group

Brad Miller

Pinellas Suncoast Transit Authority (PSTA)

Elizabeth Presutti

Charlotte Area Transit System

Catherine Rinaldi

MTA Metro North Railroad, NY

Jeffrey Rosenberg

Amalgamated Transit Union

Bernard Schmidt

NextEra Energy

Justin Stuehrenberg

Madison Metro Transit

Frank White, III

Kansas City Area Transportation Authority

Kimberly J. Williams

Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County

Nigel H.M. Wilson

MIT

EX OFFICIO MEMBERS

Shailen Bhatt

FHWA

Victoria Sheehan

TRB

Paul P. Skoutelas

APTA

Jim Tymon

AASHTO

Veronica Vanterpool

AASHTO

TOPS COMMISSION STAFF ADVISOR

Arthur L. Guzzetti

APTA

SECRETARY

Monique R. Evans

TRB

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2024 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE^*

OFFICERS

CHAIR: Carol A. Lewis, Professor, Transportation Studies, Texas Southern University, Houston

VICE CHAIR: Leslie S. Richards, General Manager, Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority (SEPTA), Philadelphia

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR: Victoria Sheehan, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC

MEMBERS

Michael F. Ableson, CEO, Arrival Automotive–North America, Detroit, MI

James F. Albaugh, President and CEO, The Boeing Company (retired), Scottsdale, AZ

Carlos M. Braceras, Executive Director, Utah Department of Transportation, Salt Lake City

Douglas C. Ceva, Vice President, Customer Lead Solutions, Prologis, Inc., Jupiter, FL

Nancy Daubenberger, Commissioner of Transportation, Minnesota Department of Transportation, St. Paul

Marie Therese Dominguez, Commissioner, New York State Department of Transportation, Albany

Garrett Eucalitto, Commissioner, Connecticut Department of Transportation, Newington

Chris T. Hendrickson, Hamerschlag University Professor of Engineering Emeritus, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA

Randell Iwasaki, President and CEO, Iwasaki Consulting Services, Walnut Creek, CA

Ashby Johnson, Executive Director, Capital Area Metropolitan Planning Organization (CAMPO), Austin, TX

Joel M. Jundt, Secretary of Transportation, South Dakota Department of Transportation, Pierre

Hani S. Mahmassani, W.A. Patterson Distinguished Chair in Transportation; Director, Transportation Center, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL

Scott C. Marler, Director, Iowa Department of Transportation, Ames

Ricardo Martinez, Adjunct Professor of Emergency Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Decatur, GA

Michael R. McClellan, Vice President, Strategic Planning, Norfolk Southern Corporation, Atlanta, GA

Russell McMurry, Commissioner, Georgia Department of Transportation, Atlanta

Craig E. Philip, Research Professor and Director, VECTOR, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN

Steward T.A. Pickett, Distinguished Senior Scientist, Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY

Susan A. Shaheen, Professor and Co-director, Transportation Sustainability Research Center, University of California, Berkeley

Marc Williams, Executive Director, Texas Department of Transportation, Austin

EX OFFICIO MEMBERS

Michael R. Berube, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Sustainable Transportation, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC

Shailen Bhatt, Administrator, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC

Amit Bose, Administrator, Federal Railroad Administration, Washington, DC

Tristan Brown, Deputy Administrator, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC

Steven Cliff, Executive Officer, California Air Resources Board, Sacramento

Rand Ghayad, Senior Vice President, Association of American Railroads, Washington, DC

LeRoy Gishi, Chief, Division of Transportation, Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior, Germantown, MD

William H. Graham, Jr. (Major General, U.S. Army), Deputy Commanding General for Civil and Emergency Operations, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC

Robert C. Hampshire, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Research and Technology, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC

Zahra “Niloo” Parvinashtiani, Engineer, Mobility Consultant Solutions, Iteris Inc., Fairfax, VA, and Chair, TRB Young Members Coordinating Council

Sophie Shulman, Deputy Administrator, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC

Karl Simon, Director, Transportation and Climate Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC

Paul P. Skoutelas, President and CEO, American Public Transportation Association, Washington, DC

Polly Trottenberg, Deputy Secretary of Transportation, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC

Jim Tymon, Executive Director, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC

Veronica Vanterpool, Acting Administrator, Federal Transit Administration, Washington, DC

Michael Whitaker, Administrator, Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC

Vinn White, Deputy Administrator, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, Washington, DC

___________________

^* Membership as of August 2024.

^* Membership as of August 2024.

TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM

The nation’s growth and the need to meet mobility, environmental, and energy objectives place demands on public transit systems. Current systems, some of which are old and in need of upgrading, must expand service area, increase service frequency, and improve efficiency to serve these demands. Research is necessary to solve operating problems, adapt appropriate new technologies from other industries, and introduce innovations into the transit industry. The Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) serves as one of the principal means by which the transit industry can develop innovative near-term solutions to meet demands placed on it.

The need for TCRP was originally identified in TRB Special Report 213—Research for Public Transit: New Directions, published in 1987 and based on a study sponsored by the Urban Mass Transportation Administration—now the Federal Transit Administration (FTA). A report by the American Public Transportation Association (APTA), Transportation 2000, also recognized the need for local, problem-solving research. TCRP, modeled after the successful National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), undertakes research and other technical activities in response to the needs of transit service providers. The scope of TCRP includes various transit research fields including planning, service configuration, equipment, facilities, operations, human resources, maintenance, policy, and administrative practices.

TCRP was established under FTA sponsorship in July 1992. Proposed by the U.S. Department of Transportation, TCRP was authorized as part of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA). On May 13, 1992, a memorandum agreement outlining TCRP operating procedures was executed by the three cooperating organizations: FTA; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, acting through the Transportation Research Board (TRB); and APTA. APTA is responsible for forming the independent governing board, designated as the TCRP Oversight and Project Selection (TOPS) Commission.

Research problem statements for TCRP are solicited periodically but may be submitted to TRB by anyone at any time. It is the responsibility of the TOPS Commission to formulate the research program by identifying the highest priority projects. As part of the evaluation, the TOPS Commission defines funding levels and expected products.

Once selected, each project is assigned to an expert panel appointed by TRB. The panels prepare project statements (requests for proposals), select contractors, and provide technical guidance and counsel throughout the life of the project. The process for developing research problem statements and selecting research agencies has been used by TRB in managing cooperative research programs since 1962. As in other TRB activities, TCRP project panels serve voluntarily without compensation.

Because research cannot have the desired effect if products fail to reach the intended audience, special emphasis is placed on disseminating TCRP results to the intended users of the research: transit agencies, service providers, and suppliers. TRB provides a series of research reports, syntheses of transit practice, and other supporting material developed by TCRP research. APTA will arrange for workshops, training aids, field visits, and other activities to ensure that results are implemented by urban and rural transit industry practitioners.

TCRP provides a forum where transit agencies can cooperatively address common operational problems. TCRP results support and complement other ongoing transit research and training programs.

TCRP RESEARCH REPORT 250

Project D-21

ISSN 2572-3782

ISBN 978-0-309-72614-6

Library of Congress Control Number 2024946281

© 2024 by the National Academy of Sciences. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and the graphical logo are trademarks of the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

COPYRIGHT INFORMATION

Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously published or copyrighted material used herein.

Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, APTA, FAA, FHWA, FTA, GHSA, or NHTSA endorsement of a particular product, method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this document for educational and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate acknowledgment of the source of any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission from CRP.

NOTICE

The research report was reviewed by the technical panel and accepted for publication according to procedures established and overseen by the Transportation Research Board and approved by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.

The opinions and conclusions expressed or implied in this report are those of the researchers who performed the research and are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; or the program sponsors.

The Transportation Research Board does not develop, issue, or publish standards or specifications. The Transportation Research Board manages applied research projects which provide the scientific foundation that may be used by Transportation Research Board sponsors, industry associations, or other organizations as the basis for revised practices, procedures, or specifications.

The Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; and the sponsors of the Transit Cooperative Research Program do not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers’ names or logos appear herein solely because they are considered essential to the object of the report.

Published research reports of the

TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM

are available from

National Academies Press

500 Fifth Street, NW, Keck 360

Washington, DC 20001

(800) 624-6242

and can be ordered through the Internet by going to

https://nap.nationalacademies.org

Printed in the United States of America

AIRPORT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM

Airports are vital national resources. They serve a key role in transportation of people and goods and in regional, national, and international commerce. They are where the nation’s aviation system connects with other modes of transportation and where federal responsibility for managing and regulating air traffic operations intersects with the role of state and local governments that own and operate most airports. Research is necessary to solve common operating problems, to adapt appropriate new technologies from other industries, and to introduce innovations into the airport industry. The Airport Cooperative Research Program (ACRP) serves as one of the principal means by which the airport industry can develop innovative near-term solutions to meet demands placed on it.

The need for ACRP was identified in TRB Special Report 272: Airport Research Needs: Cooperative Solutions in 2003, based on a study sponsored by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). ACRP carries out applied research on problems that are shared by airport operating agencies and not being adequately addressed by existing federal research programs. ACRP is modeled after the successful National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) and Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP). ACRP undertakes research and other technical activities in various airport subject areas, including design, construction, legal, maintenance, operations, safety, policy, planning, human resources, and administration. ACRP provides a forum where airport operators can cooperatively address common operational problems.

ACRP was authorized in December 2003 as part of the Vision 100—Century of Aviation Reauthorization Act. The primary participants in the ACRP are (1) an independent governing board, the ACRP Oversight Committee (AOC), appointed by the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Transportation with representation from airport operating agencies, other stakeholders, and relevant industry organizations such as the Airports Council International-North America (ACI-NA), the American Association of Airport Executives (AAAE), the National Association of State Aviation Officials (NASAO), Airlines for America (A4A), and the Airport Consultants Council (ACC) as vital links to the airport community; (2) TRB as program manager and secretariat for the governing board; and (3) the FAA as program sponsor. In October 2005, the FAA executed a contract with the National Academy of Sciences formally initiating the program.

ACRP benefits from the cooperation and participation of airport professionals, air carriers, shippers, state and local government officials, equipment and service suppliers, other airport users, and research organizations. Each of these participants has different interests and responsibilities, and each is an integral part of this cooperative research effort.

Research problem statements for ACRP are solicited periodically but may be submitted to TRB by anyone at any time. It is the responsibility of the AOC to formulate the research program by identifying the highest priority projects and defining funding levels and expected products.

Once selected, each ACRP project is assigned to an expert panel appointed by TRB. Panels include experienced practitioners and research specialists; heavy emphasis is placed on including airport professionals, the intended users of the research products. The panels prepare project statements (requests for proposals), select contractors, and provide technical guidance and counsel throughout the life of the project. The process for developing research problem statements and selecting research agencies has been used by TRB in managing cooperative research programs since 1962. As in other TRB activities, ACRP project panels serve voluntarily without compensation.

Primary emphasis is placed on disseminating ACRP results to the intended users of the research: airport operating agencies, service providers, and academic institutions. ACRP produces a series of research reports for use by airport operators, local agencies, the FAA, and other interested parties; industry associations may arrange for workshops, training aids, field visits, webinars, and other activities to ensure that results are implemented by airport industry practitioners.

ACRP RESEARCH REPORT 275

Project 03-64

ISSN 2572-3731 (Print)

ISSN 2572-374X (Online)

ISBN 978-0-309-72614-6

Library of Congress Control Number 2024946281

© 2024 by the National Academy of Sciences. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and the graphical logo are trademarks of the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

COPYRIGHT INFORMATION

Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously published or copyrighted material used herein.

Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, APTA, FAA, FHWA, FTA, GHSA, or NHTSA endorsement of a particular product, method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this document for educational and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate acknowledgment of the source of any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission from CRP.

NOTICE

The research report was reviewed by the technical panel and accepted for publication according to procedures established and overseen by the Transportation Research Board and approved by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.

The opinions and conclusions expressed or implied in this report are those of the researchers who performed the research and are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; or the program sponsors.

The Transportation Research Board does not develop, issue, or publish standards or specifications. The Transportation Research Board manages applied research projects which provide the scientific foundation that may be used by Transportation Research Board sponsors, industry associations, or other organizations as the basis for revised practices, procedures, or specifications.

The Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; and the sponsors of the Airport Cooperative Research Program do not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers’ names or logos appear herein solely because they are considered essential to the object of the report.

Published research reports of the

AIRPORT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM

are available from

National Academies Press

500 Fifth Street, NW, Keck 360

Washington, DC 20001

(800) 624-6242

and can be ordered through the Internet by going to

https://nap.nationalacademies.org

Printed in the United States of America

NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM

Systematic, well-designed, and implementable research is the most effective way to solve many problems facing state departments of transportation (DOTs) administrators and engineers. Often, highway problems are of local or regional interest and can best be studied by state DOTs individually or in cooperation with their state universities and others. However, the accelerating growth of highway transportation results in increasingly complex problems of wide interest to highway authorities. These problems are best studied through a coordinated program of cooperative research.

Recognizing this need, the leadership of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) in 1962 initiated an objective national highway research program using modern scientific techniques—the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). NCHRP is supported on a continuing basis by funds from participating member states of AASHTO and receives the full cooperation and support of the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), United States Department of Transportation, under Agreement No. 693JJ31950003.

The Transportation Research Board (TRB) of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine was requested by AASHTO to administer the research program because of TRB’s recognized objectivity and understanding of modern research practices. TRB is uniquely suited for this purpose for many reasons: TRB maintains an extensive committee structure from which authorities on any highway transportation subject may be drawn; TRB possesses avenues of communications and cooperation with federal, state, and local governmental agencies, universities, and industry; TRB’s relationship to the National Academies is an insurance of objectivity; and TRB maintains a full-time staff of specialists in highway transportation matters to bring the findings of research directly to those in a position to use them.

The program is developed on the basis of research needs identified by chief administrators and other staff of the highway and transportation departments, by committees of AASHTO, and by the FHWA. Topics of the highest merit are selected by the AASHTO Special Committee on Research and Innovation (R&I), and each year R&I’s recommendations are proposed to the AASHTO Board of Directors and the National Academies. Research projects to address these topics are defined by NCHRP, and qualified research agencies are selected from submitted proposals. Administration and surveillance of research contracts are the responsibilities of the National Academies and TRB.

The needs for highway research are many, and NCHRP can make significant contributions to solving highway transportation problems of mutual concern to many responsible groups. The program, however, is intended to complement, rather than to substitute for or duplicate, other highway research programs.

NCHRP RESEARCH REPORT 1129

Project 08-156

ISSN 2572-3766 (Print)

ISSN 2572-3774 (Online)

ISBN 978-0-309-72614-6

Library of Congress Control Number 2024946281

© 2024 by the National Academy of Sciences. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and the graphical logo are trademarks of the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

COPYRIGHT INFORMATION

Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously published or copyrighted material used herein.

Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, APTA, FAA, FHWA, FTA, GHSA, or NHTSA endorsement of a particular product, method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this document for educational and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate acknowledgment of the source of any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission from CRP.

NOTICE

The research report was reviewed by the technical panel and accepted for publication according to procedures established and overseen by the Transportation Research Board and approved by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.

The opinions and conclusions expressed or implied in this report are those of the researchers who performed the research and are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; the FHWA; or the program sponsors.

The Transportation Research Board does not develop, issue, or publish standards or specifications. The Transportation Research Board manages applied research projects which provide the scientific foundation that may be used by Transportation Research Board sponsors, industry associations, or other organizations as the basis for revised practices, procedures, or specifications.

The Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; and the sponsors of the National Cooperative Highway Research Program do not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers’ names or logos appear herein solely because they are considered essential to the object of the report.

Published research reports of the

NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM

are available from

National Academies Press

500 Fifth Street, NW, Keck 360

Washington, DC 20001

(800) 624-6242

and can be ordered through the Internet by going to

https://nap.nationalacademies.org

Printed in the United States of America

The National Academy of Sciences was established in 1863 by an Act of Congress, signed by President Lincoln, as a private, nongovernmental institution to advise the nation on issues related to science and technology. Members are elected by their peers for outstanding contributions to research. Dr. Marcia McNutt is president.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964 under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences to bring the practices of engineering to advising the nation. Members are elected by their peers for extraordinary contributions to engineering. Dr. John L. Anderson is president.

The National Academy of Medicine (formerly the Institute of Medicine) was established in 1970 under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences to advise the nation on medical and health issues. Members are elected by their peers for distinguished contributions to medicine and health. Dr. Victor J. Dzau is president.

The three Academies work together as the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine to provide independent, objective analysis and advice to the nation and conduct other activities to solve complex problems and inform public policy decisions. The National Academies also encourage education and research, recognize outstanding contributions to knowledge, and increase public understanding in matters of science, engineering, and medicine.

Learn more about the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine at www.nationalacademies.org.

The Transportation Research Board is one of seven major program divisions of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. The mission of the Transportation Research Board is to mobilize expertise, experience, and knowledge to anticipate and solve complex transportation-related challenges. The Board’s varied activities annually engage about 8,500 engineers, scientists, and other transportation researchers and practitioners from the public and private sectors and academia, all of whom contribute their expertise in the public interest. The program is supported by state departments of transportation, federal agencies including the component administrations of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and other organizations and individuals interested in the development of transportation.

Learn more about the Transportation Research Board at www.TRB.org.

COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS

CRP STAFF FOR TCRP RESEARCH REPORT 250/ACRP RESEARCH REPORT 275/NCHRP RESEARCH REPORT 1129

Monique R. Evans, Director, Cooperative Research Programs

Waseem Dekelbab, Deputy Director, Cooperative Research Programs

Gwen Chisholm Smith, Manager, Transit Cooperative Research Program

Marci A. Greenberger, Manager, Airport Cooperative Research Program

Dianne S. Schwager, Senior Program Officer

Dajaih Bias-Johnson, Senior Program Assistant

Natalie Barnes, Director of Publications

Heather DiAngelis, Associate Director of Publications

Doug English, Senior Editor

TCRP PROJECT D-21 PANEL

Field of Engineering of Fixed Facilities

ACRP PROJECT 03-64 PANEL

Field of Policy and Planning

NCHRP PROJECT 08-156 PANEL

Field of Transportation Planning—Area of Planning Methods and Processes

Manjiri G. Akalkotkar, VIA Metropolitan Transit, San Antonio, TX (Chair)

Abubaker Azam, San Francisco International Airport, Vallejo, CA

Nicole Campbell, Minnesota Department of Transportation, St Paul, MN

Adam Cohen, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA

Efon M. Epanty, Prince George’s County Department of Public Works & Transportation, Upper Marlboro, MD

Sharon C. Feigon, Sharon Feigon Associates, Evanston, IL

Lisa M. Glover, City of Atlanta Department of Transportation, Atlanta, GA

David C. Harris, New Mexico Department of Transportation, Santa Fe, NM

Hiroshi John Ishikawa, Southern California Association of Governments, Los Angeles, CA

I. Richmond Nettey, Kent State University, Stow, OH

Matthew Petersen, Boston Transportation Department, Boston, MA

Khaled J. Shammout, SORTA/Metro, Cincinnati, OH

Nicholas R. Stewart, Maryland Transit Administration, Baltimore, MD

Julia Thayne, RGonzalez, Los Angeles, CA

Prachi Vakharia, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC

James B. Webb, LS Gallegos & Associates, Riverton, UT

Mia Zmud, Blue Door Strategy, Moab, UT

Jean Wolfers-Lawrence, FAA Liaison

Heather Rose, FHWA Liaison

Ned Conroy, FTA Liaison

Melissa McGill, FTA Liaison

Shayne H. Gill, AASHTO Liaison

Christina Jung, APTA Liaison

FOREWORD

By Dianne S. Schwager

Staff Officer

Transportation Research Board

This report describes the state of the practice, emerging lessons, and recommended practices for how intermodal passenger facilities can meet the needs of diverse users in the 21st century. The report emphasizes seamless travel and considers how customers experience intermodal passenger facilities, particularly during complex trips in an era of rapid change and the emergence of advanced technologies. This report will be used as a planning and decision-making resource for intermodal facility planners and owners, transportation providers, concerned stakeholders, and their communities.

An intermodal passenger facility is a transportation hub served by at least two modes of travel with at least one travel mode by air, rail, bus, or passenger vessel. This report:

• Presents a typology of facilities (train stations, bus stations, transit centers, and ferry/cruise ship terminals/docks) and emphasizes the intermodal components of traveling to/from and within commercial airports.
• Provides a 10-category planning framework suitable for various community contexts and governance structures and applies the planning framework to managing pickups and drop-offs as an example.
• Explains project delivery methods, funding and financing options, and data management and data stewardship strategies, including harnessing new data.
• Provides examples from existing intermodal passenger facilities, and integrated descriptions of published references provide context and additional information on specific topics.

The appendices offer additional resources and case studies addressing (A) advanced air mobility, (B) private data sources, (C) project delivery, (D) federal funding, and (E) a Denver Union Station case study.

The research was conducted by Nelson\Nygaard Consulting Associates, Inc., and a team of consultants, including the University of Oregon, Sam Schwartz Engineering, RAW International, and WSP Americas. The objective of this research was to develop a guide and decision-making framework for stakeholders to plan, implement, and operate intermodal passenger facilities that address the near- and longer-term needs in different types of communities.

The report discusses how changes in travel and other societal trends may alter future intermodal passenger facility uses. These changes include increased telework, ongoing disruptions to intercity bus service, increased adoption of digital technologies, expansion of electric vehicles for personal use and for transit, the broadening housing crisis, an aging population, and increased frequency of extreme weather events.

AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The research reported herein was performed under TCRP Project D-21 by Nelson\Nygaard Consulting Associates, Inc., contractor for this study.

Bill Schwartz, AICP, Principal of Nelson\Nygaard, was Principal Investigator. Contributors to the report include Nico Larco, AIA, Professor of Architecture at the University of Oregon and Director of the Urbanism Next Center; Amanda Howell, Urbanism Next Researcher at the Sustainable Cities Institute (SCI) of the University of Oregon, now with the Oregon Department of Transportation; Sallye Perrin, Senior Vice President and National Director of P3s at WSP; Aaron Organ, Senior Consultant, Aerial Innovation at WSP; Louis Alcorn, AICP, Senior Technical Principal and Lead Consultant of Transit and Rail Finance at WSP; Bree Mobley, Senior Transportation Engineer at Sam Schwartz Engineering; and Joe Iacobucci, Senior Principal at Sam Schwartz Engineering.

Additional contributors to the research project include Alan Danaher, P.E., PTOE, AICP, PTP, Senior Vice President at WSP; Paul Wheeler, Vice President, Aerial Innovation Services at WSP; Catherine Prince, MBA, PMP, LEED AP, STP, Vice President, Climate Resilience and Sustainability at WSP; Christian Zimmer, Senior Consultant at WSP; Tim Thornton, Principal Financial Consultant at HDR (formerly at WSP); Sabrina Ortiz, Architectural Designer at Overland Partners and Researcher at Urbanism Next; Karina Macias, Senior Associate at Nelson\Nygaard and now Program Manager at Psomas; Amy Pettine, Senior Principal at Nelson\Nygaard; Sam Huffman, Associate at Nelson\Nygaard; Sophia Constantine, Associate at Nelson\Nygaard; and Mary Cay Walp, Senior Designer at Nelson\Nygaard.

CONTENTS

Summary

Chapter 1 Introduction

What Is an Intermodal Passenger Facility?

Prioritizing the Customer Experience for Seamless Travel

Flexibility and Adaptability in an Uncertain Future

How to Navigate the Report

Typology and Planning Framework

Existing Intermodal Passenger Facility Guidance

Chapter 2 History of Intermodal Passenger Facilities Through 2020

Introduction

Pre-1970: Rise and Decline of Intercity Travel by Train and Bus

1970–1989: A Changing Business Climate for Rail, Bus, and Air Travel

1990–2009: Technology Transforms Business and Consumer Behavior

2010–2019: New Mobility Era

Chapter 3 Recent Trends and Implications

2020 and Beyond: Remote/Hybrid Work, Climate Adaptation, and Automation

Trends in Transportation

Trends in Society, Business, the Environment, and Technology

Summary of Potentially Important Trends

Chapter 4 A Typology of Intermodal Passenger Facilities

Introduction

Categories of Intermodal Ground Passenger Facilities

Intermodal Ground Passenger Facility Examples

Intermodal Components of Airports

Applying Station Typologies – Planning Examples

Chapter 5 Planning and Decision-Making Framework

Introduction

Categories of Planning and Decision-Making

Supporting the Complete Trip and User Experience

Applying the Typology and Planning Categories for Managing Pickups and Drop-Offs

Chapter 6 Data and Information Needs

Introduction

Data Collection Planning and Management

New Data Resources

Mode-Level Data

Chapter 7 Governance and Partnerships

Introduction

Types of Governance Models

Essential Elements of the Governance Process

Assigning Roles and Responsibilities

Accommodating Changes Over a Project’s Life Cycle

Governance Model Checklist

Project Delivery Methods

Evaluating Project Delivery Models

Private Development Partnerships

Provider Partnerships

Chapter 8 Funding and Financing

Introduction

Choosing the Right Funding Program/Approach

Federal Funding Strategies

Financing Options and Innovative Delivery Strategies

Federal Financing Options

Other Financing Options

Value Capture

Development Impact Fees

Chapter 9 Conclusion

Key Takeaways

References

Acronyms and Abbreviations

Appendix A Advanced Air Mobility: A Primer

Appendix B Private Data Sources

Appendix C Project Delivery

Appendix D Federal Funding

Appendix E Denver Union Station Case Study