Consensus Study Report

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This study was supported by a contract between the National Academy of Sciences, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement, National Marine Fisheries Service, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of any organization or agency that provided support for the project.

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Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.17226/29255

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Suggested citation: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2026. Offshore Renewable Energy Development on the West Coast: Understanding Effects on Shipping, Fisheries, and Maritime Activities. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/29255.

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COMMITTEE ON IMPACTS ON SHIPPING AND COMMERCIAL, TRIBAL, AND RECREATIONAL FISHERIES FROM DEVELOPMENT OF RENEWABLE ENERGY ON THE WEST COAST

MICHELE CONRAD, (Co-Chair), Oceanbeat Consulting

R. KEITH MICHEL, (Co-Chair), Webb Institute (retired)

DAVE ANNING, Integral Consulting Inc.

DIANA BOB, Native Law PLLC

DAVID CHECKLEY, University of California San Diego, Scripps Institution of Oceanography (retired)

MICHAEL CONROY, Principal – West Coast Fisheries Consultants

JEREMY FIRESTONE, University of Delaware (retired)

STEPHEN JONER, Fisheries Management Consultant, Makah Tribe

REBECCA L. LEWISON, San Diego State University

BRIAN PENOYER, Center for Strategic and International Studies

TRACY PHILLIPS, U.S. Coast Guard (retired)

ROBERT SHEPPARD, Spire Engineering Services LLC

ANNETTE VON JOUANNE, Baylor University

Staff

CAROLINE BELL, Program Officer, Study Director

MARK HUTCHINS, Senior Program Officer

MADELINE JENSEN, Research Associate

ZOE ALEXANDER, Senior Program Assistant (until August 1, 2025)

RACHEL AMHAUS, Program Assistant (until July 25, 2025)

SAMUEL KRAFT, Senior Program Assistant (as of August 5, 2025)

Reviewers

This Consensus Study Report was reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine in making each published report as sound as possible and to ensure that it meets the institutional standards for quality, objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process.

We thank the following individuals for their review of this report:

Although the reviewers listed above provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations of this report nor did they see the final draft before its release. The review of this report was overseen by BONNIE MCCAY, Rutgers University, and RICHARD SEARS, Stanford University. They were responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with the standards of the National Academies and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content rests entirely with the authoring committee and the National Academies.

Acknowledgments

The committee thanks the following individuals for their contributions during the study process, especially for enriching and informing the discussions at the open-session meetings of the committee: Kelly Andrews (NOAA Fisheries Northwest Fisheries Science Center), Rufus Arnold (Makah Tribal Council), Ken Bates (California Fishermen’s Resiliency Association), James Bennett (Bennett Energy & Environment), Jeff Burright (Oregon Department of Land Conservation and Development), Molly Croll (American Clean Power), Kelly Denning (Universities of Louisiana Maritime Academy), Spencer Hallowell (University of Maine), Eli Harland (California Energy Commission), CDR Brandon Harris (U.S. Coast Guard District 13), Holly Harrison (Captain, U.S. Coast Guard [retired]), Sarah Henkel (Oregon State University), Scott Jackson (Texas A&M Corps of Cadets), Michael Jacox (NOAA Fisheries), Andy Lanier (Oregon Department of Land Conservation and Development), Jennifer Lim (Moffatt & Nichol), Owen Liu (University of Washington), Greg Matzat (Independent Consultant), Scott McMullen (Oregon’s Fishermen’s Cable Committee), Jacqueline Moore (Pacific Merchant Shipping Association), Tommy Moore (Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission), Monte Mills (University of Washington), Corey Niles (Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife), Larry Phillips (American Sportfishing Association), Suzanne Pleizia (Port of Long Beach), Brian Polagye (University of Washington), Sean Pribyl (Holland & Knight), Joe Prudell (CPower), Kaustubha Raghukumar (Integral Consulting Inc.), Clair Richer (American Clean Power), Dominique Roddier (Ocergy), Sean Ryan (Oregon State University), Jameal Samhouri (NOAA Fisheries), Lars Samuelson (ABS Global Offshore Renewables), Dan Shipman (U.S Coast Guard [retired]), and Jessica Watson (Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife).

The committee additionally received assistance from the National Academies research center in their literature review and would like to thank senior librarian Anne Marie Houppert for her help.

The committee also wants to thank our tribal liaison group who shared their experiences and insights. We thank the following individuals for their contributions to the study process: Jadelin Castellaw (Tolowa Dee-ni’ Nation), Margaret Corvi (West Coast Ocean Alliance), Rick Eichstaedt (Washington Growth Management Hearing Board), Jennifer Hagen (Quileute Tribe), Kevin McKernan (Yurok Tribe), Tommy Moore (Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission), Heidi Moore-Guynup (Blue Lake Rancheria), Julie Siestreem (Confederated Tribes of Coos, Lower Umpqua, Siuslaw), Andrea Sumerau (Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians), Hannah Tennent (Hoh Indian Tribe), and Ysabelle Yrad (Blue Lake Rancheria).

Contents

SUMMARY

The Setting: Maritime Activity and Ecosystem Context

Offshore Renewable Energy Technologies

Planning and Regulatory Framework

Interactions, Effects, and Benefits

Committee Recommendations

Conclusion

1 INTRODUCTION

Origin and Purpose of the Study

Study Approach

Study Context

Report Organization

References

2 USES OF OFFSHORE AREAS: MARITIME ACTIVITY

Maritime Activity on the West Coast

Maritime Activity Overlaps

Potential Shifts in Maritime Activity

References

3 USES OF OFFSHORE AREAS: FISHING ACTIVITY

West Coast Fisheries

Tribal Fisheries

California Current Ecosystem

Current and Future Shifts in Fish Stocks

References

4 U.S. COAST GUARD OPERATIONS AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

Search and Rescue

References

5 OFFSHORE RENEWABLE ENERGY ON THE WEST COAST

Offshore Wind Energy

Wave Energy

Tidal Energy

Offshore Renewable Energy Technology

References

6 OFFSHORE RENEWABLE ENERGY PLANNING PROCESS

Federal Offshore Renewable Energy Regulations

State-Level Planning

State Marine Spatial Planning and Marine Coastal Zone Management

Data Needs for Offshore Renewable Energy Site Selection

Community Engagement

References

7 EFFECTS AND BENEFITS OF OFFSHORE RENEWABLE ENERGY

Offshore Renewable Energy and Fisheries Interactions

Effects of Offshore Renewable Energy on Maritime Activity and Shipping

Recommendations

References

APPENDIX A: COMMITTEE BIOGRAPHIES

APPENDIX B: SAMPLE FRAMEWORK FOR SITING NEW OFFSHORE RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS

Boxes, Figures, and Tables

BOXES

1-1 Statement of Task

2-1 Crabber/Towboat Lane Agreement

3-1 NOAA Fisheries Economics

3-2 Commercial Fishing Mapping Initiatives

3-3 The Mahah Tribe’s Usual and Accustomed Fishing Area

3-4 Modeling Approaches

5-1 Capacity Factors

7-1 East Coast Recreational Anglers’ Post-Construction Perceptions of Offshore Renewable Energy

FIGURES

S-1 Map of study area

S-2 Average annual wind speed (m/s) at 100 m above the surface (right) and wind direction (left) in covered waters off the West Coast

S-3 Location of U.S. Coast Guard units on the West Coast

S-4 BOEM and BSEE regulatory states and timeline

1-1 Map of study area

1-2 Fishing activity within the U.S. portion of the California Current Ecosystem since the 1970s

2-1 Maritime zones

2-2 Annual AIS vessel density: average of all vessels (2017–2021)

2-3 Average annual AIS vessel density from 2017–2021 of cargo vessels (left) and tanker vessels (right)

2-4 Annual AIS vessel density: average of tug/tow vessels (2017–2021)

2-5 Annual AIS vessel density: average of recreational vessels (2017–2021)

2-6 Goods loaded in the worldwide maritime trade, 2000–2023

2-7 Waterborne tonnage for California, Oregon, and Washington ports

2-8 Waterborne TEU movements for California, Oregon, and Washington ports

2-9 Annual number of vessels along the U.S. West Coast from AIS data, 2012–2021

2-10 Proposed Pacific Coast fairways

3-1 Map of NOAA’s National Marine Fisheries Service surveys by type with offshore wind call areas overlaid from 2022

3-2 Dungeness crab pot

3-3 Bottom-trawl gear

3-4 Midwater trawl gear

3-5 Bottom longline gear

3-6 Pot/trap gear connected with groundline

3-7 Salmon troll gear

3-8 Purse seine gear

3-9 Commercial fishing activity by gear type from AIS and VMS data

3-10 Average annual wind speed (m/s) at 100 m above the surface (right) and wind direction (left) in covered waters off the West Coast

4-1 U.S. Coast Guard units on the West Coast

5-1 Offshore wind farms with floating foundations and suspended inter-array cables connected to a floating substation and to the onshore electric grid

5-2 Common floating offshore wind support structures: (left to right) spar, semisubmersible, and tension-leg platform

5-3 Offshore wind activity in the North Atlantic

5-4 Offshore wind activity in the Mid-Atlantic

5-5 Five California offshore wind lease areas

5-6 Current active lease blocks per BOEM data offshore Texas and Louisiana

5-7 Installed oil and gas platforms offshore Texas and Louisiana

5-8 Location of three deepwater platforms in the Green Canyon region

5-9 Location of seven platforms in the Vermillion area in less than 150 ft of water

5-10 Examples of the six main wave energy converter archetypes, including the configurations, optimal conditions, and device name or developer

5-11 Artist rendition of PacWave South wave energy testing site

5-12 PacWave South and PacWave North Site locations off Oregon Coast

5-13 Ocean Sentinel mobile test berth for testing non-grid-connected WECs at the PacWave North wave energy test site

5-14 Examples of the six main tidal energy converter archetypes, including the configurations, optimal conditions, and device name or developer

5-15 Technology readiness levels

6-1 BOEM and BSEE regulatory states and timeline

6-2 California environmental review process for offshore wind applications

6-3 Social acceptance dimensions

TABLES

1-1 Relative Commercial Fishing Value by Species

1-2 Federal Agencies Involved in Offshore Renewable Energy Development

1-3 Laws Granting Regulatory Authority for Offshore Renewable Energy Development

2-1 Vessel Movement (Track Count) by Type along the West Coast (2017–2021)

2-2 International Maritime Trade in Millions of Tons Loaded

3-1 NOAA’s National Marine Fisheries Service Scientific Surveys along the U.S. West Coast

3-2 West Coast Commercial Fisheries in Pacific Ocean Waters with Estimated Number of Vessels, 2024

3-3 Commercial Fisheries Landings and Ex-Vessel Revenue from Pacific Ocean off the Coasts of Washington, Oregon, and California, 2024

3-4 Average Recreational Ocean Groundfish Angler Trips by State and Mode (Charter or Private), 2019–2023

3-5 Recreational Ocean Salmon Angler Trips by State and Year, 2022–2024, and 2019–2023 Average

3-6 Recreational Albacore Tuna Catch (Numbers of Fish) by State and Year, 2021–2023

3-7 Fisheries Data Used by ODFW and NMFS for NCCOS Data Layer

5-1 Summary of Six Main Wave Energy Converter Devices

5-2 Summary of Six Main Tidal Energy Converter Device Archetypes

Acronyms and Abbreviations

Preface

In 2005, the Bureau of Ocean and Energy Management (BOEM) was named the lead federal agency responsible for offshore renewable energy (including wind) development in federal waters. BOEM established wind energy call areas for California in October 2018 and for Oregon in April 2022. The offshore wind development processes in those states culminated in BOEM designating the Humboldt wind energy area off the northern California coast in July 2021, the Morro Bay wind energy areas in November 2021 and two wind energy areas off the southern Oregon coast in February 2024.

All three West Coast states have adopted robust renewable energy goals. Oregon plans to achieve 100 percent clean electricity by 2040, and California and Washington have adopted similar goals to achieve that target by 2045 with specific benchmarks for 2030 (60 percent for California and 80 percent each for Washington and Oregon) and 2035 (90 percent each for California and Oregon). California’s renewable energy goals include plans for offshore wind development with targets of 2–5 gigawatts (GW) by 2030 and 25 GW by 2045, which is enough to power over 25 million homes. Oregon is in the process of developing a comprehensive offshore wind energy roadmap, which will examine the feasibility of integrating up to 3 GW of floating offshore wind by 2030, while ensuring minimal negative impact on existing industries like commercial fishing and coastal communities. Washington does not have a specific goal for offshore renewable energy, but the state commissioned a study in 2024 to develop a framework for offshore wind engagement.

However, the development of offshore renewable energy has been temporarily hampered at the federal level by a series of presidential memorandums, executive orders, and federal agency actions. In July 2025 BOEM rescinded all designated areas in federal waters that had been targeted for offshore wind development. During the course of this study, the Committee on Impacts on Shipping and Commercial, Tribal, and Recreational Fisheries from Development of Renewable Energy on the West Coast found that the establishment of call areas and designation of wind energy areas on the West Coast offshore waters was contentious with many constituents including the Tribes and fishing communities that believed they were not effectively engaged during the offshore wind development process. Also, the Committee found that further research is needed to better understand how large offshore wind installations affect the ocean environment. The committee believes the current pause in designated future wind energy areas off the West Coast can be put to good use by proceeding with research on impacts and mitigation measures and implementing improvements in the regulatory processes. The recommendations in the report reflect these findings.

While the report concentrates on renewable energy, we were careful to evaluate the wide range of current and potential uses of the ocean as they are all critical to the economic health and security of the nation. As specified in the Statement of Task, the report focuses on three affected groups: the Tribes and their legal rights to the oceans and its associated resources; the Tribal, recreational, and commercial fisheries and fishing communities who could be significantly affected by offshore wind installations; and the U.S. Coast Guard, whose search and rescue and navigational safety capability will need to adapt if large wind projects are installed in the West Coast offshore waters.

Because of the diversity of subject matter taken under consideration in this study, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (National Academies) brought together a committee with wide-ranging expertise. Committee members had expertise in offshore wind and hydrokinetic technology, the offshore wind regulatory process, West Coast Tribal, commercial and recreational fisheries, Tribal rights and customs, Coast Guard operations including navigation and search and rescue, and ocean and coastal shipping. We are pleased to have co-chaired this committee, whose members worked together cohesively to meld their varied knowledge into this consensus report. We are thankful for the commitment and cooperation they demonstrated throughout this effort.

The committee is also indebted to the many people who shared their extensive knowledge on the subject matter with the committee, including representatives from BOEM, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Coast Guard; representatives from the states of California, Oregon, and Washington; authorities on port development; offshore floating wind and wave energy designers; experts on the ocean environment; members of the fishing community; and the Tribal leadership and representatives who presented to the committee.

We are most thankful for the guidance and support we received from the National Academies staff. Over an 8-month period, the committee conducted extensive outreach and then jointly drafted this report. This would not have been possible without the unwavering support and encouragement provided by Study Director Caroline Bell and the numerous other National Academies staff members who participated in this effort.

Michele K. Conrad, Co-chair
R. Keith Michel, Co-chair
Committee on Impacts on Shipping and Commercial, Tribal, and Recreational
Fisheries from Development of Renewable Energy Development on the West Coast
February 2026