Appendix C

Systematic Reviews

THERAPEUTIC EFFECTS OF CANNABIS AND CANNABINOIDS

Chronic Pain

Andreae, M. H., G. M. Carter, N. Shaparin, K. Suslov, R. J. Ellis, M. A. Ware, D. I. Abrams, H. Prasad, B. Wilsey, D. Indyk, M. Johnson, and H. S. Sacks. 2015. Inhaled cannabis for chronic neuropathic pain: A meta-analysis of individual patient data. Journal of Pain 16(12):1121–1232.

Fitzcharles, M. A., P. A. Ste-Marie, W. Hauser, D. J. Clauw, S. Jamal, J. Karsh, T. Landry, S. LeClercq, J. J. McDougall, Y. Shir, K. Shojania, and Z. Walsh. 2016. Efficacy, tolerability, and safety of cannabinoid treatments in the rheumatic diseases: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Arthritis Care and Research 68(5):681–688.

Richards, B. L., S. L. Whittle, D. M. Van Der Heijde, and R. Buchbinder. 2012. Efficacy and safety of neuromodulators in inflammatory arthritis: A Cochrane systematic review. Journal of Rheumatology 39(Suppl 90):28–33.

Snedecor, S. J., L. Sudharshan, J. C. Cappelleri, A. Sadosky, P. Desai, Y. J. Jalundhwala, and M. Botteman. 2013. Systematic review and comparison of pharmacologic therapies for neuropathic pain associated with spinal cord injury. Journal of Pain Research 6:539–547.

Whiting, P. F., R. F. Wolff, S. Deshpande, M. Di Nisio, S. Duffy, A. V. Hernandez, J. C. Keurentjes, S. Lang, K. Misso, S. Ryder, S. Schmidlkofer, M. Westwood, and J. Kleijnen. 2015. Cannabinoids for medical use: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 313(24):2456–2473.

Cancer

Rocha, F., J. dos Santos Junior, S. Stefano, and D. da Silveira. 2014. Systematic review of the literature on clinical and experimental trials on the antitumor effects of cannabinoids in gliomas. Journal of Neuro-Oncology 116(1):11–24.

Chemotherapy-Induced Nausea and Vomiting

Phillips, R. S., A. J. Friend, F. Gibson, E. Houghton, S. Gopaul, J. V. Craig, and B. Pizer. 2016. Antiemetic medication for prevention and treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting in childhood. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2:CD007786.

Smith, L. A., F. Azariah, T. C. V. Lavender, N. S. Stoner, and S. Bettiol. 2015. Cannabinoids for nausea and vomiting in adults with cancer receiving chemotherapy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 11:CD009464.

Whiting, P. F., R. F. Wolff, S. Deshpande, M. Di Nisio, S. Duffy, A. V. Hernandez, J. C. Keurentjes, S. Lang, K. Misso, S. Ryder, S. Schmidlkofer, M. Westwood, and J. Kleijnen. 2015. Cannabinoids for medical use: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 313(24):2456–2473.

Anorexia and Weight Loss

Lutge, E. E., A. Gray, and N. Siegfried. 2013. The medical use of cannabis for reducing morbidity and mortality in patients with HIV/AIDS. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 4:CD005175.

Whiting, P. F., R. F. Wolff, S. Deshpande, M. Di Nisio, S. Duffy, A. V. Hernandez, J. C. Keurentjes, S. Lang, K. Misso, S. Ryder, S. Schmidlkofer, M. Westwood, and J. Kleijnen. 2015. Cannabinoids for medical use: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 313(24):2456–2473.

Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)

The committee did not identify any good- or fair-quality systematic reviews that reported on IBS.

Epilepsy

Gloss, D., and B. Vickrey. 2014. Cannabinoids for epilepsy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 3:CD009270.

Koppel, B. S., J. C. Brust, T. Fife, J. Bronstein, S. Youssof, G. Gronseth, and D. Gloss. 2014. Systematic review: Efficacy and safety of medical marijuana in selected neurologic disorders: Report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 82(17):1556–1563.

Spasticity Associated with Multiple Sclerosis and Paraplegia Caused by Spinal Cord Injury

Koppel, B. S., J. C. Brust, T. Fife, J. Bronstein, S. Youssof, G. Gronseth, and D. Gloss. 2014. Systematic review: Efficacy and safety of medical marijuana in selected neurologic disorders: Report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 82(17):1556–1563.

Whiting, P. F., R. F. Wolff, S. Deshpande, M. Di Nisio, S. Duffy, A. V. Hernandez, J. C. Keurentjes, S. Lang, K. Misso, S. Ryder, S. Schmidlkofer, M. Westwood, and J. Kleijnen. 2015. Cannabinoids for medical use: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 313(24):2456–2473.

Tourette Syndrome

Koppel, B. S., J. C. Brust, T. Fife, J. Bronstein, S. Youssof, G. Gronseth, and D. Gloss. 2014. Systematic review: Efficacy and safety of medical marijuana in selected neurologic disorders: Report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 82(17):1556–1563.

Whiting, P. F., R. F. Wolff, S. Deshpande, M. Di Nisio, S. Duffy, A. V. Hernandez, J. C. Keurentjes, S. Lang, K. Misso, S. Ryder, S. Schmidlkofer, M. Westwood, and J. Kleijnen. 2015. Cannabinoids for medical use: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 313(24):2456–2473.

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

The committee did not identify any good- or fair-quality systematic reviews that reported on ALS.

Huntington’s Disease

Koppel, B. S., J. C. Brust, T. Fife, J. Bronstein, S. Youssof, G. Gronseth, and D. Gloss. 2014. Systematic review: Efficacy and safety of medical marijuana in selected neurologic disorders: Report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 82(17):1556–1563.

Parkinson’s Disease

Koppel, B. S., J. C. Brust, T. Fife, J. Bronstein, S. Youssof, G. Gronseth, and D. Gloss. 2014. Systematic review: Efficacy and safety of medical marijuana in selected neurologic disorders: Report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 82(17):1556–1563.

Dystonia

Koppel, B. S., J. C. Brust, T. Fife, J. Bronstein, S. Youssof, G. Gronseth, and D. Gloss. 2014. Systematic review: Efficacy and safety of medical marijuana in selected neurologic disorders: Report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 82(17):1556–1563.

Dementia

Krishnan, S., R. Cairns, and R. Howard. 2009. Cannabinoids for the treatment of dementia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2:CD007204.

van den Elsen, G. A. H., A. I. A. Ahmed, M. Lammers, C. Kramers, R. J. Verkes, M. A. van der Marck, and M. G. M. O. Rikkert. 2014. Efficacy and safety of medical cannabinoids in older subjects: A systematic review. Ageing Research Reviews 14(1):56–64.

Glaucoma

Whiting, P. F., R. F. Wolff, S. Deshpande, M. Di Nisio, S. Duffy, A. V. Hernandez, J. C. Keurentjes, S. Lang, K. Misso, S. Ryder, S. Schmidlkofer, M. Westwood, and J. Kleijnen. 2015. Cannabinoids for medical use: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 313(24):2456–2473.

Traumatic Brain Injury/Intracranial Hemorrhage

The committee did not identify any good- or fair-quality systematic reviews that reported on traumatic brain injury/intracranial hemorrhage.

Addiction

Marshall, K., L. Gowing, R. Ali, and B. Le Foll. 2014. Pharmacotherapies for cannabis dependence. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 12:CD008940.

Prud’Homme, M., R. Cata, and D. Jutras-Aswad. 2015. Cannabidiol as an intervention for addictive behaviors: A systematic review of the evidence. Substance Abuse: Research and Treatment 9:33–38.

Anxiety

Whiting, P. F., R. F. Wolff, S. Deshpande, M. Di Nisio, S. Duffy, A. V. Hernandez, J. C. Keurentjes, S. Lang, K. Misso, S. Ryder, S. Schmidlkofer, M. Westwood, and J. Kleijnen. 2015. Cannabinoids for medical use: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 313(24):2456–2473.

Depression

Whiting, P. F., R. F. Wolff, S. Deshpande, M. Di Nisio, S. Duffy, A. V. Hernandez, J. C. Keurentjes, S. Lang, K. Misso, S. Ryder, S. Schmidlkofer, M. Westwood, and J. Kleijnen. 2015. Cannabinoids for medical use: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 313(24):2456–2473.

Sleep Disorders

Whiting, P. F., R. F. Wolff, S. Deshpande, M. Di Nisio, S. Duffy, A. V. Hernandez, J. C. Keurentjes, S. Lang, K. Misso, S. Ryder, S. Schmidlkofer, M. Westwood, and J. Kleijnen. 2015. Cannabinoids for medical use: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 313(24):2456–2473.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

The committee did not identify any good- or fair-quality systematic reviews that reported on PTSD.

Schizophrenia and Other Psychoses

McLoughlin, B. C., J. A. Pushpa-Rajah, D. Gillies, J. Rathbone, H. Variend, E. Kalakouti, and K. Kyprianou. 2014. Cannabis and schizophrenia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 10:CD004837.

Whiting, P. F., R. F. Wolff, S. Deshpande, M. Di Nisio, S. Duffy, A. V. Hernandez, J. C. Keurentjes, S. Lang, K. Misso, S. Ryder, S. Schmidlkofer, M. Westwood, and J. Kleijnen. 2015. Cannabinoids for medical use: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 313(24):2456–2473.

CANCER INCIDENCE

Lung Cancer

Zhang, L. R., H. Morgenstern, S. Greenland, S.-C. Chang, P. Lazarus, M. D. Teare, P. J. Woll, I. Orlow, and B. Cox, on behalf of the Cannabis and Respiratory Disease Group of New Zealand, Y. Brhane, G. Liu, and R. J. Hung. 2015. Cannabis smoking and lung cancer risk: Pooled analysis in the International Lung Cancer Consortium. International Journal of Cancer 136(4):894–903.

Head and Neck Cancers

de Carvalho, M. F., M. R. Dourado, I. B. Fernandes, C. T. Araujo, A. T. Mesquita, and M. L. Ramos-Jorge. 2015. Head and neck cancer among marijuana users: A meta-analysis of matched case-control studies. Archives of Oral Biology 60(12):1750–1755.

Testicular Cancer

Gurney, J., C. Shaw, J. Stanley, V. Signal, and D. Sarfati. 2015. Cannabis exposure and risk of testicular cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Cancer 15:897.

Esophageal Cancer

The committee did not identify any good- or fair-quality systematic reviews that reported on esophageal cancer.

Other Cancers in Adults

The committee did not identify any good- or fair-quality systematic reviews that reported on other cancers in adults.

Childhood Cancers

The committee did not identify any good- or fair-quality systematic reviews that reported on childhood cancers.

CARDIOMETABOLIC RISK

The committee did not identify any good- or fair-quality systematic reviews that reported on the health endpoints addressed in this chapter.

RESPIRATORY DISEASE

Pulmonary Function

Tetrault, J. M., K. Crothers, B. A. Moore, R. Mehra, J. Concato, and D. A. Fiellin. 2007. Effects of marijuana smoking on pulmonary function and respiratory complications: A systematic review. Archives of Internal Medicine 167:221–228.

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

The committee did not identify any good- or fair-quality systematic reviews that reported on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Respiratory Symptoms, Including Chronic Bronchitis

Tetrault, J. M., K. Crothers, B. A. Moore, R. Mehra, J. Concato, and D. A. Fiellin. 2007. Effects of marijuana smoking on pulmonary function and respiratory complications: A systematic review. Archives of Internal Medicine 167:221–228.

Asthma

Tetrault, J. M., K. Crothers, B. A. Moore, R. Mehra, J. Concato, and D. A. Fiellin. 2007. Effects of marijuana smoking on pulmonary function and respiratory complications: A systematic review. Archives of Internal Medicine 167:221–228.

IMMUNITY

The committee did not identify any good- or fair-quality systematic reviews that reported on the health endpoints addressed in this chapter.

INJURY AND DEATH

All-Cause Mortality

Calabria, B., L. Degenhardt, W. Hall, and M. Lynskey. 2010. Does cannabis use increase the risk of death? Systematic review of epidemiological evidence on adverse effects of cannabis use. Drug and Alcohol Review 29(3):318–330.

Occupational Injury

The committee did not identify any good- or fair-quality systematic reviews that reported on occupational injury.

Motor Vehicle Crashes

Asbridge, M., J. A. Hayden, and J. L. Cartwright. 2012. Acute cannabis consumption and motor vehicle collision risk: Systematic review of observational studies and meta-analysis. BMJ 344:e536.

Calabria, B., L. Degenhardt, W. Hall, and M. Lynskey. 2010. Does cannabis use increase the risk of death? Systematic review of epidemiological evidence on adverse effects of cannabis use. Drug and Alcohol Review 29(3):318–330.

Elvik, R. 2013. Risk of road accident associated with the use of drugs: A systematic review and meta-analysis of evidence from epidemiological studies. Accident Analysis & Prevention 60:254–267.

Hartman, R. L., and M. A. Huestis. 2013. Cannabis effects on driving skills. Clinical Chemistry 59(3):478-492.

Li, M. C., J. E. Brady, C. J. DiMaggio, A. R. Lusardi, K. Y. Tzong, and G. Li. 2012. Marijuana use and motor vehicle crashes. Epidemiologic Reviews 34:65–72.

Rogeberg, O., and R. Elvik. 2016. The effects of cannabis intoxication on motor vehicle collision revisited and revised. Addiction 111:1348–1359.

Overdose Injuries and Death

The committee did not identify any good- or fair-quality systematic reviews that reported on overdose injuries and death.

PRENATAL, PERINATAL, AND NEONATAL EXPOSURE TO CANNABIS

Pregnancy Complications for the Mother

Gunn, J. K. L., C. B. Rosales, K. E. Center, A. Nunez, S. J. Gibson, C. Christ, and J. E. Ehiri. 2016. Prenatal exposure to cannabis and maternal and child health outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open 6(4):e009986.

Fetal Growth and Development

Gunn, J. K. L., C. B. Rosales, K. E. Center, A. Nunez, S. J. Gibson, C. Christ, and J. E. Ehiri. 2016. Prenatal exposure to cannabis and maternal and child health outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open 6(4):e009986.

Neonatal Conditions

Gunn, J. K. L., C. B. Rosales, K. E. Center, A. Nunez, S. J. Gibson, C. Christ, and J. E. Ehiri. 2016. Prenatal exposure to cannabis and maternal and child health outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open 6(4):e009986.

Later Outcomes

The committee did not identify any good- or fair-quality systematic reviews that reported on later outcomes.

PSYCHOSOCIAL

Cognition

Batalla, A., S. Bhattacharyya, M. Yucel, P. Fusar-Poli, J. A. Crippa, S. Nogue, M. Torrens, J. Pujol, M. Farre, and R. Martin-Santos. 2013. Structural and functional imaging studies in chronic cannabis users: A systematic review of adolescent and adult findings. PLOS ONE 8(2):e55821.

Broyd, S. J., H. H. Van Hell, C. Beale, M. Yucel, and N. Solowij. 2016. Acute and chronic effects of cannabinoids on human cognition—A systematic review. Biological Psychiatry 79(7):557–567.

Grant, I., R. Gonzalez, C. L. Carey, L. Natarajan, and T. Wolfson. 2003. Non-acute (residual) neurocognitive effects of cannabis use: A meta-analytic study. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 9:679–689.

Martin-Santos, R., A. B. Fagundo, J. A. Crippa, Z. Atakan, S. Bhattacharyya, P. Allen, P. Fusar-Poli, S. Borgwardt, M. Seal, G. F. Busatto, and P. McGuire. 2010. Neuroimaging in Cannabis Use: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Psychological Medicine 40(3):383–398.

Schreiner, A. M., and M. E. Dunn. 2012. Residual effects of cannabis use on neurocognitive performance after prolonged abstinence: A meta-analysis. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 20(5):420–429.

Academic Achievement

Macleod, J., R. Oakes,A. Copello, I. Crome, M. Egger, M. Hickman, T. Oppenkowski, H. Stokes-Lampard, and G. Davey Smith. 2004. Psychological and social sequelae of cannabis and other illicit drug use by young people: A systematic review of longitudinal, general population studies. Lancet 363(9421):1579–1588.

Employment and Income

The committee did not identify any good- or fair-quality systematic reviews that reported on employment and income.

Social Relationships and Other Social Roles

Macleod, J., R. Oakes, A. Copello, I. Crome, M. Egger, M. Hickman, T. Oppenkowski, H. Stokes-Lampard, and G. Davey Smith. 2004. Psychological and social sequelae of cannabis and other illicit drug use by young people: A systematic review of longitudinal, general population studies. Lancet 363(9421):1579–1588.

MENTAL HEALTH

Schizophrenia and Other Psychoses

Donoghue, K., and G. A. Doody. 2012. Effect of illegal substance use on cognitive function in individuals with a psychotic disorder: A review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychology 26(6):785–801.

Large, M., S. Sharma, M. T. Compton, T. Slade, and O. Nielssen. 2011. Cannabis use and earlier onset of psychosis: A systematic meta-analysis. Archives of General Psychiatry 68(6):555–561.

Marconi, A., M. Di Forti, C. M. Lewis, R. M. Murray, and E. Vassos. 2016. Meta-analysis of the association between the level of cannabis use and risk of psychosis. Schizophrenia Bulletin 42(5):1262–1269.

Moore, T. H., S. Zammit, A. Lingford-Hughes, T. R. Barnes, P. B. Jones, M. Burke, and G. Lewis. 2007. Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: A systematic review. Lancet 370(9584):319–328.

Myles, N., H. Newall, O. Nielssen, and M. Large. 2012. The association between cannabis use and earlier age at onset of schizophrenia and other psychoses: Meta-analysis of possible confounding factors. Current Pharmaceutical Design 18(32):5055–5069.

Rabin, R. A., K. K. Zakzanis, and T. P. George. 2011. The effects of cannabis use on neurocognition in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Research 128(1–3):111–116.

Szoke, A., A. M. Galliot, J. R. Richard, A. Ferchiou, G. Baudin, M. Leboyer, and F. Schurhoff. 2014. Association between cannabis use and schizotypal dimensions—A meta-analysis of cross-sectional studies. Psychiatry Research 219(1):58–66.

van der Meer, F. J., E. Velthorst, C. J. Meijer, M. W. Machielsen, and L. de Haan. 2012. Cannabis use in patients at clinical high risk of psychosis: Impact on prodromal symptoms and transition to psychosis. Current Pharmaceutical Design 18(32):5036–5044.

Yucel, M., E. Bora, D. I. Lubman, N. Solowij, W. J. Brewer, S. M. Cotton, P. Conus, M. J. Takagi, A. Fornito, S. J. Wood, P. D. McGorry, and C. Pantelis. 2012. The impact of cannabis use on cognitive functioning in patients with schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of existing findings and new data in a first-episode sample. Schizophrenia Bulletin 38(2):316–330.

Zammit, S., T. H. Moore, A. Lingford-Hughes, T. R. Barnes, P. B. Jones, M., Burke, and G. Lewis. 2008. Effects of cannabis use on outcomes of psychotic disorders: Systematic review. British Journal of Psychiatry 193(5):357–363.

Bipolar Disorder

Gibbs, M., C. Winsper, S. Marwaha, E. Gilbert, M. Broome, and S. P. Singh. 2015. Cannabis use and mania symptoms: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders 171:39–47.

Depression

Lev-Ran, S., B. Le Foll, K. McKenzie, T. P. George, and J. Rehm. 2013. Bipolar disorder and co-occurring cannabis use disorders: Characteristics, co-morbidities and clinical correlates. Psychiatry Research 209(3):459–465.

Moore, T. H., S. Zammit, A. Lingford-Hughes, T. R. Barnes, P. B. Jones, M. Burke, and G. Lewis. 2007. Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: A systematic review. Lancet 370(9584):319–328.

Suicide

Borges, G., C. L. Bagge, and R. Orozco. 2016. A literature review and meta-analyses of cannabis use and suicidality. Journal of Affective Disorders 195:63–74.

Moore, T. H., S. Zammit, A. Lingford-Hughes, T. R. Barnes, P. B. Jones, M. Burke, and G. Lewis. 2007. Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: A systematic review. Lancet 370(9584):319–328.

Anxiety

Kedzior, K. K., and L. T. Laeber. 2014. A positive association between anxiety disorders and cannabis use or cannabis use disorders in the general population—A meta-analysis of 31 studies. BMC Psychiatry 14:136.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

The committee did not identify any good- or fair-quality systematic reviews that reported on PTSD.

PROBLEM CANNABIS USE

Development of Problem Cannabis Use

The committee did not identify any good- or fair-quality systematic reviews that reported on the development of problem cannabis use.

Risk and Protective Factors for Developing Problem Cannabis Use

Humphreys, K. L., T. Eng, and S. S. Lee. 2013. Stimulant medication and substance use outcomes: A meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry 70(7):740–749.

Kedzior, K. K., and L. T. Laeber. 2014. A positive association between anxiety disorders and cannabis use or cannabis use disorders in the general population—A meta-analysis of 31 studies. BMC Psychiatry 14:136.

Risk and Protective Factors for Severity and Persistence of Problem Cannabis Use

The committee did not identify any good- or fair-quality systematic reviews that reported on the risk and protective factors for severity and persistence of problem cannabis use.

ABUSE OF OTHER SUBSTANCES

The committee did not identify any good- or fair-quality systematic reviews that reported on abuse of other substances.