Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition (2025)
Chapter: Reference Guide on Neuroscience
Unfortunately, this book can't be printed from the OpenBook.
If you need to print pages from this book, we recommend
downloading it as a PDF.
Visit NAP.edu/10766 to get more information about this book, to buy it in print, or to download it as a free PDF.
Visit NAP.edu/10766 to get more information about this book, to buy it in print, or to download it as a free PDF.
Previous Chapter:
Reference Guide on Medical Testimony
Next Chapter: Reference Guide on Mental Health Evidence
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Suggested Citation:
"Reference Guide on Neuroscience." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
doi: 10.17226/26919.
Subscribe to Email from the National Academies
Keep up with all of the activities, publications, and events by subscribing to free updates by email.