Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition (2025)

Chapter: Reference Guide on Epidemiology

Previous Chapter: Reference Guide on Exposure Science and Exposure Assessment
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 899
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 900
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 901
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 902
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 903
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 904
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 905
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 906
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 907
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 908
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 909
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 910
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 911
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 912
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 913
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 914
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 915
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 916
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 917
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 918
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 919
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 920
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 921
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 922
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 923
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 924
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 925
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 926
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 927
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 928
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 929
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 930
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 931
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 932
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 933
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 934
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 935
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 936
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 937
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 938
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 939
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 940
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 941
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 942
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 943
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 944
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 945
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 946
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 947
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 948
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 949
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 950
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 951
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 952
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 953
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 954
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 955
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 956
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 957
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 958
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 959
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 960
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 961
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 962
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 963
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 964
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 965
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 966
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 967
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 968
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 969
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 970
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 971
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 972
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 973
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 974
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 975
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 976
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 977
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 978
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 979
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 980
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 981
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 982
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 983
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 984
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 985
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 986
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 987
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 988
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 989
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 990
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 991
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 992
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 993
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 994
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 995
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 996
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 997
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 998
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 999
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1000
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1001
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1002
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1003
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1004
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1005
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1006
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1007
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1008
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1009
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1010
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1011
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1012
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1013
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1014
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1015
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1016
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1017
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1018
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1019
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1020
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1021
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1022
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1023
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1024
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1025
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1026
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1027
Suggested Citation: "Reference Guide on Epidemiology." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and Federal Judicial Center. 2025. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence: Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26919.
Page 1028
Next Chapter: Reference Guide on Toxicology
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