A
Adirondack Park Agency, 77
Ahmanson Foundation, 225
Alliance for Chesapeake Bay, 205, 208, 209
American Association for Public Administration, 222
American Express Foundation, 225
American Institute of Architects, 221-222
American Institute of Certified Planners, 222
American Planning Association, 221, 222
American Public Health Association, 222
American Public Works Association, 222
American Red Cross, 47, 209, 211-212
American Society of Civil Engineers, 222
American Society of Landscape Architects, 222
American Society of Professional Engineers, 222
Apalachicola Bay system, 215
Applied Technology Council, 151, 153, 207
Arkansas, 184
Army Board of Engineers, 37-38
Arnold, Missouri, 90
Arvada, Colorado, 13
Assessment. See Hazard assessment
Association of State Floodplain Managers, 43
Audubon Society, 219
Austin Comprehensive Watersheds ordinance, 252
Australian Fire Hazard Mapping System, 162
B
Benefit-cost analyses, 134
Boulder, Colorado, 252
Boulder County Wildfire Hazard Information Mitigation System, 125, 145, 162, 163
Brandywine Conservancy, 215-218
Brundtland Commission, 235
Building codes.
See also Construction standards
enforcement, 16-17, 54, 61, 67, 188, 255
federal requirements, 64
floodproofing, 64, 128, 173, 176
hurricane mitigation, 188
London fire and, 30-31
retroactive, 122
seismic, 128-129, 138, 151, 173, 188
state-mandated, 70
zoning used with, 191
Building inventories, 130, 147, 150
Building Seismic Safety Council, 66, 207
Burby, Raymond J., 1-26, 61, 263-291
Burnham, Daniel H., 34
Burton, lan, 5
C
California
adoption of hazard mitigation policies, 74, 181
Alquist-Priolo Earthquake Fault Zoning Act, 126, 129, 151
Bay Area Regional Earthquake Preparedness Project, 225-226
development policies, 70, 175, 238
Division of Forestry State Responsibility Wildfire Hazard Mapping
Program, 162
Division of Mines and Geology, 145, 156
earthquake preparedness programs, 77
earthquake probabilities, 140-141
Environmental Quality Act, 175, 179
fault-zone regulation, 188
hazard mitigation plan, 102, 105-107, 140
Landslide Hazard Identification Program, 156
local planning mandate, 71-72
NGO programs in, 215, 216, 217
Office of Emergency Services, 154, 227
perceptions of risk, 182
real estate disclosure requirements, 128
regional planning, 246
Seismic Hazards Mapping Act/ Program, 128, 151, 156, 185
study zones, 129
Urban Futures model, 257
Urban Geology Master Plan, 156
California Community Foundation, 225
Cambridge, Massachusetts, 256
Cape Girardeau, Missouri, 13
Capital improvements program, 198
Carter administration, 273
Cascadia subduction zone, 146
Census block maps, 139
Central U.S. Earthquake Consortium, 224-226
Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania, 215-216
Chaffee County, Colorado, 218
Charles II, 31
Charles River Watershed Association, 217-218
Charleston, South Carolina, 243
Charlotte, North Carolina, 252
Chattahoochee River, 252
Chattanooga, Tennessee, 236, 257
Chelan County, Washington, fire, 161
Chen, Jye, 156-157
Chesapeake Bay program, 77, 246
Chesapeake Bay Trust, 205, 208, 209, 210
Chicago fire, 33
Church World Services, 211
Cincinnati, Ohio, 156
Clawson, Marion, 40
Coastal Barrier Resources Act, 65, 66, 81, 129
Coastal barriers, 9, 65, 66, 81, 129, 212-213
Coastal development.
See also
Hurricane hazard mitigation construction standards, 17, 156, 173, 176, 193
critical and public facilities policies, 173, 176
attractiveness for, 7-8
federal programs and policies, 65, 67
flood mitigation, 37, 40, 176-177, 184
information dissemination, 174, 177
insurance coverage, 55, 65, 271
land and property acquisition, 44, 173, 177
litigation, 45
regulations, 157-158, 173, 176
setbacks, 70, 128, 156, 190, 197, 213, 253
shoreline protection strategy, 214-215
sustainable, 246-247
taxation and fiscal policies, 173, 177
velocity zones, 193
Coastal erosion zones, 55, 128, 157-158, 159-160, 277
Coastal storms. See Hurricanes and coastal storms
Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, 65, 67, 69, 79, 285, 287
Colorado Natural Hazard Mitigation Council and Foundation, 206, 226 -228
Colorado River, 39
Columbia River, 39
Community Rating System, 64, 79, 282
Compensation for takings, 44-47, 187
Complacency, 6
Connecticut, 217
Connecticut River, 39
Consequences Assessment Tool Set, 160
Conservation Foundation, 214
Construction standards.
See also
Building codes defined, 170
flood mitigation, 12, 15-16, 64, 112, 128, 172, 173, 176
hazard assessment and, 123
hurricane damage prevention, 17, 156, 173, 176
insurance and, 64
local application of, 61, 173, 176, 196
seismic, 36, 64-65, 66, 67, 70, 122, 128-129, 138, 151, 153, 173, 176
Corpus Christi, Texas, 141
Critical and public facilities policies, 123, 134, 170-171, 173, 176, 198-199
D
Dade County, Florida, 105
Dams and reservoirs, 8, 38, 39, 50, 111-112, 153, 190
Delaware River, 39
Delaware River Basin Commission, 77
Denver Urban Drainage and Flood Control District, 149-150
Deterministic damage-loss assessments, 131, 141, 147
Development regulations.
See also Building codes;
Zoning
building abatement ordinance, 188
defined, 170
education and, 191-192
effectiveness, 11-12, 191-192, 196-198
environmental, 213-214
floodplains, 9, 15, 40, 41-43, 44-45, 172, 173, 176, 189
hazard assessment and, 123
hazard maps and, 188, 189, 190
hazards not covered by, 43
local application of, 91, 173, 176
political culture and, 185-186
post-disaster, 190-191
property rights movement and, 185-186
project-specific approaches, 189-190
purpose, 2
seismic, 10, 11-12, 126, 129, 174, 151, 176, 188
special considerations, 187
success determinants, 189, 190, 192
timing of, 189
Development rights, acquisition or transfer of, 200
Deyle, Robert, 23-24, 25, 57-82, 119-166
Disaster assistance
earthquakes, 34
eligibility requirements, 64
from foundations, 225
hurricanes, 53-54
prediction of demand for, 131, 160
and private insurance industry, 53-54
and rebuilding in disaster-prone locations, 6, 55
and sustainable development, 249-250, 264
thresholds, 277
wildfires, 51-53
Disaster Assistance Program, 47-48
Disaster Relief Act of 1974, 48, 65
Dissonance theory, 5
Dunham, Allison, 42
Dzurik, Andrew, 134
E
Earthquake consortia, 224-226
Earthquake hazard mitigation
construction standards, 10, 36, 64-65, 66, 67, 70, 122, 128-129, 138, 151, 153, 173, 176
critical and public facilities policies, 173, 176
development regulation, 11-12, 126, 129, 151, 174, 176, 179, 188
disaster assistance, 34
federal policies and programs, 20, 59, 66, 67, 77, 153
FEMA initiatives, 66, 77, 153, 225-226
hazard assessment, 11-12, 124, 126, 136, 137, 145, 146, 150-154, 164
information dissemination, 128, 174, 177
insurance, 7
land and property acquisition, 173, 177
local land use management, 10, 11-12, 59, 172-174, 175, 181, 184, 187-188
regional approaches, 59
risk assessment, 134, 140-141, 154
safety plans, 193
seismic hazard maps, 126, 128-129, 136, 145, 150, 151, 152, 153, 156, 189, 193
state policies and programs, 59, 74
taxation and fiscal policies, 173, 177
vulnerability assessment, 130, 131, 132, 147, 153-154
worst-case scenarios, 4
Earthquakes
Alaska (1964), 180
economic costs, 3
floods and, 153
Hayward Fault (projected), 51-52
lifeline failures, 33, 35-37, 103
Lisbon (1755), 31-32
Loma Prieta (1989), 34, 35-37, 52, 185, 213, 220, 226
Long Beach (1933), 36
loss estimation, 147, 153-154, 160
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale, 124, 125
New Madrid (1811), 180
Northridge (1994), 3, 35, 36, 54, 86, 106-107, 225
probabilities, 140-141
Richter magnitude, 124
San Francisco (1906), 11, 32-34, 35, 36, 180
soil liquefaction, 36, 145, 146, 151-152, 213
structural damage, 33, 35-36, 130, 150
East Bay Hills Vegetative Management Consortium, 162, 163
Ecological footprint analysis, 239-240, 248-249, 256
Economic consequences of disasters, 3-4, 5, 39, 86
Education and information programs, 16, 40, 123, 128, 171, 174, 177 , 191-192, 201, 212, 217
Emergency management services, fee system for, 135
Emergency preparedness and response, 41, 66, 77, 106, 131, 211-212, 225-226, 275
Emergency relief, 5-7.
See also Disaster assistance
Endangered Species Act, 63, 260
Environmental effects of flood control measures, 8-9
Environmental impact assessments, 134, 175, 179, 198
Environmental organizations, 212-220
EQE International, 154
Evacuation planning, 156
Evelyn, John, 30
Executive Orders
recommended, 286-287
F
Fargo, North Dakota, 13
Federal Disaster Relief Act, 47
Federal Emergency Management Agency, 23, 41
coastal erosion hazard zones, 158
Community Rating System, 64, 79, 286
cooperative agreements with states, 225-226
disaster assistance expenditures, 47
earthquake mitigation initiatives, 66, 77, 153
floodplain management initiatives, 43
hazard mitigation teams, 48, 77
Hurricane Preparedness Program, 48
Integrated Emergency Management System, 274-275, 284
NGO cooperation with, 221, 224-226
property acquisition, 50
review of state plans, 66
section 409 planning process, 193
support teams, 160
Federal Insurance Administration, 41, 159, 189
Federal Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force, 69
Federal policies and programs.
See also specific agencies and programs
acquisition of land and property, 50, 52
collaboration with NGOs, 221
commitment building, 281-283
construction standards, 64
earthquake mitigation, 20, 59, 66, 67, 77, 153
effectiveness, 67-68
flood mitigation and control, 15-16, 20, 39-40, 43, 50, 55, 66, 69
hazard mitigation planning role, 19-20, 48-49, 64-65, 67, 91, 118 , 186
insurance risk, 7
local program support, 90-91, 186
patchwork nature of, 67-69, 80, 82, 260, 272-273
recommended policy changes, 275-290
sustainable land use, 62-69, 260, 261, 285-290
Federal Response Plan, 47
Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments, 76
Fire Island Association, 44
Fires.
See also Wildfires
earthquake-related, 32-33, 34, 52, 153
models, 163
prescribed burns, 213
Flood control projects
benefit-cost analysis, 134
dams and reservoirs, 8, 38, 39, 50, 111-112, 153, 190
effectiveness, 50, 67-68, 239, 245, 270
environmental effects of, 8-9, 239
failure of structures, 8, 150, 153
levees, 8, 9, 17, 37, 38, 39, 50, 111-112, 190, 245, 264, 270
national focus, 38-39
nonstructural approaches,
see Floodplain development and management;
National Flood Insurance Program
state funding, 72
Flood Control Act of 1917, 68
Flood Control Act of 1936, 38-39
Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973, 16, 41, 64, 158
Floodplain development and management.
See also National Flood Insurance Program
construction standards, 12, 15-16, 64, 112, 128, 172, 173, 176
critical and public facilities policies, 173, 176
effectiveness, 13, 169, 188-189, 190, 192
federal policies and roles, 15-16, 20, 39-40, 43, 50, 55, 66, 69, 272-273, 282
FEMA initiatives, 43
hazard assessment, 21, 137, 140, 145-146, 148-150, 153, 164
information dissemination, 40, 174, 177
land and property acquisition, 46, 50, 173, 177, 216, 245,252, 255
local government, 8, 13, 15-16, 68-69, 79, 108, 169, 172-174, 176 -177, 184-185
post-disaster policies, 29-30, 37-43, 188-189, 240-241
property rights movement and, 43-45, 46, 56
regional, 17-18, 75, 76-77, 149-150
regulations, 9, 15, 40, 41-43, 44-45, 172, 173, 176, 189
responsibility for, 59
''rough proportionality" test, 46
sustainability, 238, 239, 240-241, 245-247, 248-249, 253
state requirements and policies, 55-56
taxation and fiscal policies, 173, 177, 278-279
vulnerability assessment, 131, 133, 147
wetlands restoration, 9, 50, 63-64, 66, 67, 70, 72, 197, 240
zoning, 9, 15, 40, 41-43, 44-45, 172
Floodplain mapping, 16, 40, 108, 125-126, 145, 149, 150, 164, 189, 190, 279-280
Floods
climatic phenomena and, 37, 40
development factors, 239
disaster assistance, 49-50, 55
earthquake-related, 153
economic costs, 3
Miami River basin (1913), 38
Midwest (1993), 3, 6-7, 8, 12, 39, 48-50, 55, 68, 90, 169, 174, 191 , 225, 239, 241, 243, 252, 255, 267
Mississippi River (1923), 38
New England (1936), 38
Ohio Valley (1935), 38
Pearl River, 17
recurrence intervals, 165
Tulsa (1984), 169
warning systems, 12
Florida
building codes, 17, 128, 188, 255
coastal erosion zone, 55, 128, 158
growth management program, 70, 71-72, 74, 75, 76, 79, 128, 175, 186
Governor's Commission for a Sustainable South Florida, 105, 250
hazard assessment, 136
hazard mitigation plan, 102, 105, 129, 133, 214-215
hurricanes, 3, 5, 6, 7, 17, 53-54, 86, 105, 188, 225, 239, 242, 255
Jordan Commons project, 242, 248-249, 251-252
local compliance with state plan, 74
storm surge maps, 127
vulnerability assessment, 133
water management districts, 77
Florida Keys, 238
Florida State University, 135, 147, 153-154
Food Security Act of 1985, 63, 67
Foundation Center, National Guide to Funding, 224
Franklin County, Florida, 214-215
French, Steven P., 25, 119-166
G
Galloway, Gerald E., Jr., 49
Galloway Report, 49-50, 55, 246
Galveston Island, 71
General Accounting Office, 81
Geographic information systems, 139, 145, 146, 147, 148, 153-154, 159, 163, 164, 257
Goddard, James E., 40
Godschalk, David R., 24, 85-118
Government Finance Officers Association, 222
Grand Coulee Dam, 39
H
Habitat for Humanity, 242, 259
Habitat II meeting, 236
Hardin, Garrett, 30
Hart, Gary, 159
Hawaii, 72
Hawaii Community foundation, 225
Hazard assessment.
See also Hazard identification;
Risk Analysis;
Vulnerability assessment
advances in, 165-166
applications, 128
characteristics of hazards and, 145-146
choices in applying, 135-144
conducting studies, 21-22
construction standards and, 123
definitions, 121
and development regulations, 123
earthquakes, 11-12, 124, 126, 136, 137, 145, 146, 150-154, 164
extent of use, 122-123
floods, 21, 137, 140, 145-146, 148-150, 153, 164
geographic scale of analysis, 124, 135, 137-139, 145, 146, 164
hurricanes and coastal storms, 124, 125-126, 127, 128, 130, 131, 134, 136, 137, 143, 145, 146, 156-160, 164
knowledge of extreme natural events, 144, 145, 148-164
and land and property acquisition, 123, 129, 134
in land use planning and management, 11-12, 16, 25, 121-135, 143, 150-154, 165-166
landslides, 131, 137, 145, 146, 154-156, 164
likelihood of occurrence, 125
for local land use management, 136-137, 139, 148
modeling impacts, 146-148
obstacles to use, 120-121, 144, 145, 153, 165-166
policy-making implications of, 164-166
precision of data, 135-139, 143, 164
recurrence intervals, 139-141, 146, 165
temporal perspective of, 139, 141-141
wildfire, 130, 137, 145, 146, 160-164
Hazard identification, 16, 98, 104, 106-107, 115-116, 120, 121, 122 , 123, 124-129, 137, 139, 141, 142, 163, 165
Hazard mapping/maps in building codes, 128-129, 138, 188
census block data with, 139
and development regulations, 188, 189, 190
and effectiveness of policies, 189, 190
floodplain, 16, 40, 108, 125-126, 145, 149, 150, 164, 189, 190, 279 -280
geographic scale, 137-139, 141
by NGOs, 207
seismic, 72, 105, 126, 128-129, 136, 145, 150, 151, 152, 153, 156, 189, 193
storm surge, 125-126, 127, 128, 145, 156-157, 164, 280
wildfire hazard zones, 137, 161-162, 163-164
Hazard mitigation.
See also Disaster assistance;
Land use management;
specific hazards
defined, 21
funding for, 48-49
responsibility, 55
Hazard mitigation plans and planning.
See also specific hazards
action recommendations, 100, 107
awareness promotion, 96
California model, 106-107
capability analysis, 99, 112-113
coercive approach, 109, 110-111
cooperative programs, 78, 79-80, 92, 109, 110-111
community wealth and resources, 185
comprehensive community plan, 101-107, 118, 123
cost-benefit assessment, 100
disaster experience and, 92-93, 186
education and training, 19
elements, 18, 23-25, 54, 98-101, 106-107, 112-113
environmental factors, 111-112, 184
existing development, 111, 122
feasibility of solution and, 186-187
federal role, 19-20, 48-49, 64-65, 67, 91, 118, 186
future development focus, 102, 103-104, 107, 111, 122
goals and objectives, 24-25, 87, 93, 94, 95, 96, 99-100, 113, 115
human behavioral, 111-112
implementation, 25, 88, 94, 97, 100, 113, 117, 187-191
integration with other programs, 88, 116, 168-170
intelligence component, 93, 95, 98-99
land use planning and, 18, 90-95, 102-106, 108-110, 111-112, 118, 168-179, 193
linkages to other issues, 116, 183-184
local government role, 18, 90-92, 111, 118, 123
management capability assessment, 112-113
monitoring, evaluation, and revision of, 93, 94, 95, 98, 113, 114-117, 135
nongovernmental organizations, 26
political culture and, 185-186
post-disaster reconstruction, 92-93, 110, 112, 118
pre-disaster, 107, 109, 112, 118
purpose, 93
quality assessment, 100-101, 113, 114-117, 191-193, 196-201
regional approach, 113
safety element, 105, 106-107, 193
stakeholder participation, 96-98, 100, 115
stand-alone, 18, 24-25, 92, 101, 102, 106-108, 113
state role, 19-20, 65-66, 91, 99, 105-106, 118, 186
Tennessee model, 112-113
type of, 101-108
Hazardous Area Management Act, 287-288
Hazardous waste management facilities, 134
HAZUS system, 147, 153-154, 160
Heritage Partnerships program, 219
Hetch Hetchy Valley dam, 34
Homestead, Florida, 242
Hoover Dam, 39
Housatonic Valley Association, 217
Housing needs, temporary, 130
Hudson River Valley Greenways Community Council and Conservacy, 229
HURISK model, 158
Hurricane and storm mitigation.
See also Coastal development
disaster assistance, 53-54, 225
effectiveness, 193
emergency preparedness programs, 48, 156
environmental factors, 184, 212-213
federal policies and programs, 48
hazard assessment, 124, 125-126, 127, 128, 130, 131, 134, 136, 137 , 143, 145, 146, 156-160, 164
insurance, 55
land use management, 10-11, 108-110, 156, 172-174
local government role, 172-174, 188
NFIP status and, 184
policy catalysts, 184
pre-storm, 109
reconstruction and rebuilding, 108, 110, 224
risk assessment, 134, 135, 158-159
storm surge maps, 125-126, 127, 128, 145, 156-157, 164
structural protection approaches, 9, 17
vulnerability assessment, 130, 131, 147, 160
Hurricanes and coastal storms
Agnes, 41
Alicia, 71
Andrew (1992), 3, 5, 6, 7, 17, 53-54, 86, 105, 188, 225, 239, 242
coastal erosion, 159-160
damage assessment, 15, 17, 136, 143, 156, 158-159, 160
flooding from, 37, 40, 176-177
Fran (1996), 3
Iniki, 225
Luis (1995), 3
Saffir/Simpson intensity scale, 124, 126
worst-case scenarios, 5
I
Information dissemination. See Education and information programs
Infrastructure, 130-131.
See also Lifelines
Institute for Property Loss Reduction, 55
Insurance, private
and construction standards, 64
disaster assistance and, 53-54
earthquake, 7
economic losses, 7, 34, 53-54, 263
federal responsibility, 7
fire, 34
flood, see National Flood Insurance Program
hurricanes and coastal storms, 55, 65
prediction of losses, 131
recommended role, 283
risk perception and, 6-7
subsidies, 277
wind damage, 271
Insurance Institute for Property Loss Reduction, 206
Insurance Service Office, 206
Interagency Floodplain Management Review Committee, 49, 246, 273, 284
International Association of Chiefs of Police, 222
International Association of Fire Chiefs, 222
International City/County Management Association, 222
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, 21-22
J
Jackson, Mississippi, 17
Jacksonville, Florida, 256
Japan, 181
Jelesnianski, Chester, 156-157
Jordan Commons project, 242, 248-249, 251-252
K
Kates, Robert, 5
Kauai County, Hawaii, 126
Kentucky, 184
Kickapoo River, 240-241, 252, 283-284
Kusler, Jon, 17
L
Lake County, Colorado, 218
Land and property acquisition, 111, 191
compensation for takings, 44-47, 187
cost considerations, 192
defined, 171
effectiveness of, 90, 191, 192, 199-200
floodplains, 46, 50, 173, 177, 189, 216, 245, 252
hazard assessment and, 123, 129, 134
by local governments, 90, 91, 173, 174, 177, 189, 191
subsidy elimination and, 277-278
Land Trust Alliance, 217
Land use management.
See also Local land use management;
Post-disaster
policy changes;
specific disasters and policies
applications, 168
barriers to, 14-19, 22-23, 66-67, 174-175
compliance problems, 17
complementary government policies, 2
cooperative planning programs, 78-80
costs and benefits, 13
design approach, 9-12, 188, 189-190
evaluation of tools for, 191-193
floodplain, see Floodplain development and management
hazard assessment and, 11-12, 16, 25, 121-135, 143, 150-154, 165-166
hazard mitigation with, 22-23, 90-95, 102-106, 168-179
hurricanes and coastal storms, 10-11, 108-110, 156, 172-174
inconsistencies among policies, 81-82
institutionalization time, 186
landslides, 13
locational approach, 9, 10, 16
management capacity, 16-17
model, 89-90
perceptions of importance, 2
property rights movement and, 23, 43-47, 59, 78
regional coordination, 17-18, 75-78
safe development practices, 2
state government role, 58-59, 69-75
tool kit, 170-172
use by local governments, 172-179
wildfires, 13-14
Land use plans/planning.
See also Hazard mitigation plans and planning
comprehensive, 102-106
development management component, 102, 104
land classification focus, 102, 103, 104
mandates, 294-295
national studies, 300-302
verbal policy component, 102, 104
Land use regulations. See Development regulations
Landslides
costs of, 156
earthquakes and, 151
hazard assessment, 131, 137, 145, 146, 154-156, 164
hazard maps/mapping, 154, 155-156, 189
land use management approaches, 13, 213
vulnerability assessment, 131, 147, 154
Larson, Larry, 17
Lecomte, Eugene, 54
Lee County, Florida, 127, 134, 135, 174-175
Levees, 8, 9, 17, 37, 38, 39, 50, 111-112, 190,264,270
Life on the Mississippi,38
Lifelines.
See also Infrastructure
construction standards, 66
hazard mitigation strategies, 104
Littleton, Colorado, 252
Local institutional development theory, 204
Local land use management
acquisition of property, 90, 91, 173, 174, 177, 187, 189, 191, 192 , 199-200
adoption determinants, 60-61, 179-187, 192, 194
advocacy to promote awareness, 181, 183, 205, 212, 228-229
assumption of risk, 269-270
barriers to, 60-62
capacity building, 205, 207, 208, 212, 214, 256
case studies, 299
commitment to, 14-16, 25-26, 61, 74, 78, 168, 192, 205, 208, 214, 281-283
comprehensive plans, 182, 189, 194, 272
construction standards, 61, 173, 176, 188, 191, 194, 196
controllable factors, 91, 179, 181-184
cooperative planning programs, 78, 79-80, 92, 109, 110-111, 193
cost considerations, 192
critical and public facilities, 170-171, 173, 176, 198-199
design approach, 10-12, 16-17, 189-190
development regulations, 91, 173, 176, 189, 191-192, 193, 194, 196 -198
disaster experience and, 186
earthquake mitigation, 10, 11-12, 59, 172-174, 175, 181, 184, 187-188, 193
education and information programs, 16, 40, 123, 171, 174, 177, 191 -192, 201, 278-279
effectiveness, 187-201
feasibility of, 186-187, 189-190
federal support of, 90-91, 186
floodplain, 8, 13, 15-16, 68-69, 79, 108, 169, 172-174, 176-177, 184-185, 188-189, 192
hazard assessment for, 136-137, 139, 148
hazard maps, 193
hurricane mitigation, 172-174, 188
implementation of hazard reduction measures, 92, 118, 168, 179, 187 -191, 193, 194, 245,290
integrated approaches, 91-95, 111, 193, 272, 274-275, 283-284
knowledge and expertise, 16, 61, 264, 278-281
level of response to hazards, 91-92
planning, 91
policymakers, 183
political climate and, 185-186
post-disaster recovery, 62, 90, 181, 188-189, 190-191
previous disaster experience and, 186
problem recognition, 181-183
professional associations and, 220-223
resistance to regional initiatives, 76
risk perception and, 61, 143, 182
spending power, 91
resource constraints, 148, 183, 185
state-mandated plans, 70-71, 73-75, 78, 80-81, 107-108, 129, 168, 186, 193, 271-272, 285-286, 294-297
surveys, 178
taxation and fiscal policies, 91, 188, 189, 193, 200-201
third sector role, 205
uncontrollable factors, 179-180, 184-187
window of opportunity, 181, 185, 188-189, 190-191
London fire, 30-31, 33, 34, 55
Los Angeles, 106-107, 122, 141, 161
Los Angeles County, 134
Loss estimation
deterministic damage-loss assessments, 131, 141, 147
earthquakes, 147, 153-154, 160
literature sources, 297-298
Lyons, Colorado, 226
M
Mader, George, 175
Maine, 72
Massachusetts, 42-43, 70, 72, 128, 129, 217, 252
May, Peter J., 23-24, 57-82, 265
McHarg, Ian, 247
McKnight Foundation, 225
Memphis, Tennessee, 134
Mendocino California Coastal Land Trust, 216
Miami (Ohio) River basin floods, 38
Miami River Conservancy District, 38
Michael Baker Corporation, 160
Midwest Working Group on Sustainable Redevelopment, 241
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 252
Minnesota, 237
Mississippi Flood Control Act of 1928, 38
Mississippi-Missouri River system, 37
Mississippi-Missouri watershed, 37
Mississippi River Commission, 38
Missouri River, 50
Mitigation Assistance Grant Program, 49
Mitigation Directorate, 48
Mobile district, 159-160
Muir, John, 34
Multiple interrelated hazards, 32-33, 34, 52, 153, 172
N
Nags Head, North Carolina, comprehensive land use plan, 106, 108-110, 172
National Association of County Governments, 222
National Civilian Community Corps, 226
National Commission on the Environment, 235
National Committee on Property Insurance, 134
National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program, 48, 153, 175, 193, 284
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 134
National Fire Protection Association, 207
National Flood Insurance Act, 15-16, 40, 41, 44, 49, 64, 66, 271,279
National Flood Insurance Program and coastal development, 65, 67, 159, 184
compliance, 282
effectiveness, 47, 54, 66, 67-68, 189, 238, 260
floodplain development restrictions, 43, 64, 66, 69, 79, 128, 189, 192
hazard mitigation requirements, 40-41, 55, 69, 286
objectives, 40-41
participation, 6-7, 64, 81, 169, 174
rate maps, 16, 125-126, 145, 150, 280
National Flood Mitigation Fund, 49
National Institute of Building Sciences, 131, 153, 160
National Institute of Municipal Legal Officials, 222
National League of Cities, 222
National Mitigation Strategy, 48, 258
National Municipal League, 222
National Neighborhood Watch program, 221
National Park Service, 219, 252
National Recreation and Park Association, 222
National Research Council, 44
National Resources Planning Board, 39
National Science and Technology Council, 238
National Science Foundation, 193
National Sheriff's Association, 221, 222
National Trust for Historic Preservation, Main Street Program, 227-228
National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disasters, 211
National Weather Service, 156
National Wildlife Federation, 259
Natural Estuaries Program, 246
The Nature Conservancy, 214-215, 216, 259
Needmor Fund, 225
New Deal, 39
New England floods (1936), 38
New England States Earthquake Consortium, 224-226
New Jersey Pinelands Commission, 77
New Madrid seismic zone, 132, 140, 150, 180, 182
New South Wales, Australia, 79
New York State, 70, 72, 75, 229
Nongovernmental organizations
capacity building by, 205, 207, 208, 212, 214, 216-217, 221, 223, 229-230
Chesapeake Bay network, 205, 208
commitment building by, 205, 206, 208, 214, 223, 229-230
education and information dissemination, 207, 212, 217, 218
effectiveness, 205
enlisting services of, 209-211
formation of, 224-230
foundations, 224
functions/roles, 66, 203-204, 205, 206-209
government collaboration with existing organizations, 210, 281
governmentally organized (GONGOs), 209, 226-227, 228-229
grassroots activism, 210, 218, 229-230, 259
growth, 204
national outreach model, 227-228
post-disaster planning, 207, 208
preparedness and response, 211-212
professional associations, 207, 220-223
quasi-nongovernmental organization (QUANGO), 209
research, 223-224
state-level, 226-227
universities, 223-224
watershed associations, 217-219, 246
North Carolina, 70, 72, 102, 103, 157-158, 238
North Carolina Coastal Area Management Act, 103
Nuclear power plants, 134
Nueces County, Texas, 141
O
Oakland, California, 33, 51-53, 55, 145, 161, 238
Ocean City, Maryland, 243-244
Office of Management and Budget, 48
Ohio Valley floods (1935), 38
Olshansky, Robert B., 25, 119-166, 167-203
Omaha, Nebraska, 13
Organization of American States, 160
P
Palatine, Illinois, 13
Palm Coast, Florida, fire, 161
Palo Alto, California, 122
Paterson, Robert G., 25, 26, 119-166, 203-230
Patton, Ann, 169
Pattonsburg, Missouri, 241-242, 243, 248-249
Pearl River flood, 17
Pepys, Samuel, 30
Perceptions of risk and behavior, 143, 264
insurance and, 6
by local governments, 61, 143, 182
structural protection and, 8, 190
warnings and, 5
Philadelphia district, 159-160
Pinchot, Gifford, 34
Platt, Rutherford, 22-23, 29-56
Political culture, and development regulations, 185-186
Pombal, Marques de, 31-32
Portland, Oregon, 129, 256, 257
Portland Metropolitan Service District, 246
Post-disaster recovery
buyout programs, 90
development regulations, 190-191
focus of, 92-93
local government role, 62
London fire (1666), 30-31
relocation to safer areas, 12, 41, 50, 188-189, 190-191
retrofitting buildings, 12, 122, 141, 188-189, 190-191
sustainable reconstruction, 237, 239, 240-241, 243
Potomac River, 39
President's Council on Sustainable Development, 236, 238, 260
Probabilistic assessments, 131, 134, 135, 140-141, 142, 156-157
Property and land acquisition. See Land and property acquisition
Property rights movement, 23, 43-47, 54, 55-56, 59, 78, 185-186, 254-255
Provo, Utah, 188
Public service professional associations, 221-222
Public shelter impact fee, 174-175
Puget Sound event, 132
Q
Quality assessment hazard mitigation plans, 100-101, 113, 114-117
R
Radke, John, 163
Raleigh, North Carolina, 252
Reagan administration, 76
Reconstruction, post-disaster
costs, 48
earthquakes and, 31-32, 34, 122
hazard mitigation, 30-31, 106-107, 108, 110, 110, 112
rebuilding in disaster-prone locations, 6, 32, 34, 44, 48, 53, 55
Rees, William, 239
Regional planning and management
bioregionalism, 247
earthquake mitigation, 59
federally created, 76
floodplain management, 17-18, 75, 76-77, 149-150
hazard mitigation, 113
land trusts, 217-218
land use solutions, 75-78
modeling, 257-258
obstacles to, 75-76
successful examples, 77, 246, 257
Regulations. See Development regulations
Relocation to safer areas, 12, 41, 50, 188-189, 200
Research
agenda, 276
national assessment of, 293-294
by NGOs, 223-224
sustainable development and, 193, 288-290
Resource conservation, 240-241, 245
Retrofitting buildings, 12, 122, 141, 188-189, 281
Rhode Island, 72
Rio Summit, 237
Risk.
See also Perceptions of risk
acceptable levels of, 137, 140, 165, 267
assumption of, 269-270
government objectives toward, 266-268
management approaches, 268-272
subsidizing, 48, 238, 264, 267-268, 270, 271, 276-278, 286
sustainability and, 243-244
Risk analyses
components of, 133-135
constraints on use, 142-143
and effectiveness of mitigation measures, 5
hurricanes and coastal storms, 134, 135, 158-159
information needs for, 279-280
landslides, 154
literature sources, 297-298
probabilistic, 133-134, 142-143
River basin management, 39, 76, 252, 273
Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, 68
Roosevelt, Theodore, 34
Ryder System Charitable Foundation, 225
S
Sacramento River, 39
Safety plans, 193
Salvation Army, 211
San Francisco
earthquake (1906), 11, 32-34, 35, 36
earthquake probability, 141
hazard mitigation planning, 105, 212
sustainable development, 257
San Francisco Bay Area Regional Earthquake Preparedness Project, 77
Santa Monica, California, 256
Savannah, Georgia, 13
Science Applications International Corporation, 160
Scientific, technical, and professional associations, 43, 220-223
Scituate, Massachusetts, 15
Scottsdale, Arizona, 252
Service interruption estimates, 131, 132
Setbacks, 70, 128, 156, 190, 197
Scottsdale, Arizona, 13
Sierra Club, 219
Smith, Richard, 159
Societal impacts, differential, 49, 130, 255
Soil liquefaction, 145, 146, 151-152, 213
Solders Grove, Wisconsin, 240-241, 243, 248-249, 283-284
South Carolina, 72, 157-158, 181
South Carolina Beachfront Management Act, 45
South Platte River, 252
Southern California Earthquake Center, 150
Southern California Earthquake Preparedness Project, 77
St. Genevieve, Missouri, 68
Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Act, 23, 48, 55, 65, 66, 67 , 91, 114, 260
Standardized Earthquake Loss Estimation Methodology, 131, 153
Stanford University, 36
State policies and programs
coastal management, 65, 70, 72, 102
commitment building by, 282-283
earthquake hazard mitigation, 59, 74, 227-228
effect of, 73-75
federally required, 65-66
flood control, 72
floodplain management, 55-56
hazard mitigation role, 19-20, 65-66, 91, 105-106, 118, 186
hazard insurance, 7
land use, 69-75
local planning mandates, 70-71, 73-75, 78, 80-81, 107-108, 129, 168 , 186, 193, 271-272, 282, 285-286
obstacles to, 71
recommended roles, 276
source of variation in, 73-75
Structural damage, earthquakes and, 33, 35-36, 130, 150
Structural protection against hazards.
See also Flood control
coastal barriers, 9, 65, 66, 81, 129
costs, 7-9
environmental impacts, 8-9
human behavioral change compared, 111-112
and perceptions of risk, 8
Subdivision ordinances, 196
Subsidies, risk, 48, 238, 264, 267-268, 270, 271, 276-278, 286
Supreme Court decisions
Dolan v. City of Tigard, Oregon, 46
First English Lutheran Evangelical Church v. County of Los Angeles , 44
Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council, 45
Sustainable communities and land use policies
agenda, 275-285
approaches, 268-272
breakdowns in, 238-239
characteristics of communities, 86, 236
conflicting goals, 57-58, 265-267
consumption limits and, 247-249
coordination and integration of, 268, 283-284
economic goals and, 88, 89, 118, 169, 249-251
ecosystem approach, 88, 89, 239-240, 244-246, 260-261
environmental considerations, 118, 212-213, 215, 235, 240-242, 244 , 245, 246-247, 249-251, 253, 257-258, 259-260, 268
ethical dimensions, 252-255
examples of initiatives, 236-237, 240-242, 246, 248-249, 251-252
federal role, 62-69, 260, 261, 285-290
future directions, 78-80
governance, 266, 272-274, 284-285
guiding principles, 26, 242-256
hazard assessment and, 164-166
importance of, 26
indicators of, 256
informed decision making and, 120, 246-247
integrative and holistic strategies, 89-90, 118, 240, 251-252, 260
knowledge base for, 278-281
literature sources, 302-303
local governments, 60-62, 90-92
natural disasters and, 1, 237-242, 256
nongovernmental organizations and, 258-260
objectives, 266-268
planning for, 86-90
policy levers and tools, 260
post-disaster reconstruction, 237, 239, 240-242, 243, 255
precautionary principle, 253-254
precedence of missed opportunities and, 265-275
regional solutions, 75-78, 245-246, 257, 258, 261
resiliance of communities, 167-203, 238, 243-244, 249-250
scope of, 274-275
social equity and, 169, 255-256, 268
social goals and, 88-89, 118, 249-251, 259-260
state, 69-75
subsidies and, 238, 264, 267-268, 270, 276-278
values supporting, 88-89
T
Takings, regulatory, 44-47, 254
Tampa Bay Regional Planning Council, 134
TAOS damage model, 160
Taxation and fiscal policies, 91, 123, 134, 171
developer incentives, 190
effectiveness, 200-201
floodplain management, 173, 177, 278-279
research on, 193
Tennessee, hazard mitigation plan, 107, 112-113
Tennessee River, 39
Tennessee Valley Authority, 39, 40, 77
Third sector. See Nongovernmental organizations
Time factors, in hazard assessment, 139-141
Titanic disaster, 32
Toledo, Ohio, 13
Toronto, 248
Truman administration, 9
Tucson, Arizona, 252
Tulsa, Oklahoma, 13, 169, 186, 252
Twain, Mark, 38
Tyler, Martha, 175
U
Unified National Program for Floodplain Management, 284
Upper Arkansas Valley Wildfire Council and Foundation, 218-220
Urban sprawl, 248
U.S. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, 81
U.S. Agency for International Development, 235
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 9, 38-39, 40, 50, 67, 134, 145, 148, 149, 245, 283-284
U.S. Conference of Mayors, 222
U.S. Department of Energy, 241
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, 219-220
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 209, 218-219
U.S. Geological Survey, 66, 145, 151, 156, 189, 212, 221
U.S. Water Resources Council, 273
Utah, 238
V
Vermont, 72
Vulnerability assessment
applications, 131-133, 142, 165
components, 129-131
data sources, 145-146
degree of use, 122-123
earthquakes, 130, 131, 132, 147, 153-154
hurricanes and coastal storms, 130, 131, 147, 160
precision, 139
research needs, 289-290
wildfires, 130, 131, 147, 161, 163
Vulnerability functions, 131, 146-147, 154
Vulnerability indicator, 256
W
Warnings and warning systems, 4-5, 41
Washington State, 70, 72, 74, 146, 152, 182
Wastewater-treatment plants, 134
Water Resources Development Act, 67
Water Resources Planning Act, 76
Water Resources Policy Commission, 9
Watershed associations, 217-219, 246
Watershed protection, 252
Watson Technical Consulting, 160
Wayne Township, New Jersey, 13
We Shall Rebuild, 259
Weather forecasting, 41
Weingart Foundation, 225
Western States Seismic Policy Council, 224-226
Wetlands, 9, 50, 63-64, 66, 67, 70, 72, 197, 213, 240, 244, 245, 274
Wildfire mitigation
disaster assistance, 51-53
hazard assessment, 130, 137, 145, 146, 160-164
hazard identification, 163
hazard mapping, 161-162, 163-164
hazard mitigation measures, 53, 161-162
insurance, 34
land use management approaches, 13-14
NGO initiatives, 218-219
post-disaster recovery, 30-31, 34, 55
risk analysis, 182
vulnerability assessment, 130, 131, 147, 161,163
Wildfires
Chelan County (1994), 161
Chicago, 33
earthquake-induced, 32-33, 153
Griffith Park (1933), 161
intensity measure, 124
London (1666), 30-31, 33, 34, 55
losses, 160-161
Oakland (1991), 33, 51-53, 55, 161, 162
Palm Coast (1985), 161
types of zones, 161
Working Group on California Earthquake Probabilities, 140-141
World Bank, 235
World Commission on Environment and Development, 235
World Resources Institute, 235
Worldwatch Institute, 235
Wren, Christopher, 30-31
Y
Yosemite National Park, 34
Z
Zoning, 2
building codes used with, 191
constitutionality, 42-43, 44-45
defined, 42
effectiveness, 196