Strengthening Alcohol Policies and Supporting Safety and Health in the Maritime Industry (2026)
Chapter: Front Matter
Consensus Study Report
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This activity was supported by contracts between the National Academy of Sciences and the U.S. Coast Guard (Contract No. 70RSAT21G00000003; Task Order No. 70Z02323FOES30001). Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of any organization or agency that provided support for the project. Generous support of the work of the Board on Behavioral, Cognitive, and Sensory Sciences comes from the American Psychological Association, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Institute on Aging, and the National Science Foundation (Award 2234961).
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COMMITTEE ON ALCOHOL AT SEA
JOSHUA M. SHARFSTEIN (Chair), Johns Hopkins University
CLAUDINE S. BRADLEY, Canada Energy Regulator
LIVINGSTONE D. CAESAR, Texas A&M University
MARTHA R. GRABOWSKI, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
ROBYN L. HACKER, University of Colorado
SONGQI LIU, Georgia State University
VICKI J. MAGLEY, University of Connecticut
KIRSTEN R. MARTIN, U.S. Coast Guard (retired)
MORGAN MCMANUS, SUNY Maritime (service through January 2025)
AMIE R. NEWINS, University of Central Florida
MARTÍN-JOSÉ SEPÚLVEDA, Florida International University
MARTIN D. SLADE, Yale University
MIEKA J. SMART, Tulane University
Study Staff
MOLLY C. DORRIES, Study Director, Senior Program Officer
EMILY A. VARGAS, Program Officer, Study Director
MARK HUTCHINS, Senior Program Officer
KATHERINE K. DEMAREST, Research Associate
THOMAS MENZIES, Board Director
SITARA RAHIAB, Senior Program Assistant
J. ASHTON RAY, Senior Program Assistant
TIFFANY TAYLOR, Senior Program Officer
DANIEL J. WEISS, Board Director
MELISSA WELCH-ROSS, Senior Program Officer
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Reviewers
This Consensus Study Report was reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine in making each published report as sound as possible and to ensure that it meets the institutional standards for quality, objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process.
We thank the following individuals for their review of this report:
Although the reviewers listed above provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations of this report nor did they see the final draft before its release. The review of this report was overseen by ROBERT B. WALLACE, The University of Iowa, and BRUCE “NED” CALONGE, University of Colorado. They were responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with the standards of the National Academies and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content rests entirely with the authoring committee and the National Academies.
Acknowledgments
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all those who contributed to the development and success of this report. We are deeply grateful for the generous support from the study sponsor, the U.S. Coast Guard, whose commitment made this work possible. We thank the Board on Behavioral, Cognitive, and Sensory Sciences for their oversight and advice throughout this study process. The committee also benefited from presentations and discussions by external experts.
- At the first meeting, we had the opportunity to talk with individuals from the U.S. Coast Guard including Captain Jerry Butwid, LCDR Jake Lobb, Martha Mannion, Jason Neubauer, Patrick Mannion, and Mayte Medina as well as Sean Kline (Chamber of Shipping of America) and Caitlyn Stewart (The American Waterways Operators).
- At a check-in meeting, we heard from Matthew Mueller of MARAD.
- At the second committee meeting, the committee heard from individuals who provided their expertise during three panels. The first panel was titled “Perspectives from Commercial Maritime Industry Operators.” We are grateful for the following volunteer panelists who served: John Lake (Passenger Vessel Association), Bob Zales (Southeastern Fisheries Association; National Association of Charterboat Operators), Sylvie Tran (Suncor). The second panel was titled “Perspectives from Support Services Organizations.” We are
- grateful for the following volunteer panelists who served: Miriam Anthony (Masters, Mates & Pilots), Laura McFalls (Women Offshore Foundation), Phillip C. Schifflin, Jr., Esq. (Seaman’s Church Institute), and Pam Kern (Port Medical Management). The third panel was titled “Evidence-Based Practices for Promoting Workplace Safety Culture.” We are grateful for the following volunteer panelists who served: Dorothy Edwards (Alteristic), Mark Fleming (Saint Mary’s University), Elise Lopez (University of Arizona), and David Shapiro (Colorado School of Public Health).
- The committee traveled to Jacksonville, Florida, for a site visit during the third meeting. We heard from RADM David M. Wulf (U.S. Merchant Marine Academy), Ira Douglas (Crowley Maritime Corp.), Francheska Bensan (Crowley Maritime Corp.), Dennis Houghton (Maersk Line, Limited), David Sloane (U.S. Marine Management, Inc.), William H. Moore (The American Club: Mutual P&I Association), and Molly McCafferty (The American Club: Mutual P&I Association). The committee also had the opportunity to meet with U.S. Senate Commerce Committee Staff and U.S. House of Representatives Transportation & Infrastructure Committee Staff. We would like to express our sincere thank you to CAPT Kenny Cady and his crew (MV Taíno), Ray Fitzgerald, Patrick Tamasitis, and Andrew Davis (Crowley Maritime Corp.), and Bob Johnston (RJE Shipping, LLC) that helped make the ship tour possible.
- During the fourth committee meeting, we heard from Eric Dawicki (Northeast Maritime Institute), Admiral Okon (SUNY Maritime College), Denise Rucker Krepp (U.S. Coast Guard veteran and former Maritime Administration Chief Counsel), Christine Dunn (Sanford Heisler Sharp McKnight), and Lindsay Price (Women Offshore Foundation).
- We thank the authors of the commissioned paper, David St. Amand and B. St. Amand (Navigistics Consulting).
The committee is grateful for the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine staff who helped to make this work possible, including project leadership by Molly C. Dorries (Study Director, Senior Program Officer) and Emily A. Vargas (Interim Study Director, Program Officer) and support from Daniel J. Weiss (Board Director, Board on Behavioral, Cognitive, and Sensory Sciences) and Thomas Menzies (Board Director, Transportation Research Board) for their guidance. We are especially thankful for Emily’s guidance while Molly took a well-deserved maternity leave.
Thank you to the other National Academies staff who were essential over the report process, including Scott Brotemarkle, Mark Hutchins, Katherine K. Demarest, Sitara Rahiab, J. Ashton Ray, Tiffany Taylor, and Melissa Welch-Ross. We thank Bea Porter of the National Academies and Sarah Jo Peterson of 23 Urban Strategies, LLC, for their editing and science writing contributions. Thank you to the individuals who served as reviewers.
Finally, we thank our colleagues on the committee for their hard work, expertise, time, and dedication in serving on this consensus study.
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OVERVIEW OF THE MARITIME REGULATORY AND OVERSIGHT FRAMEWORK
International Regulatory Framework and Process
Office of Merchant Mariner Credentialing
FEDERAL AND INDUSTRY POLICIES RELATED TO ALCOHOL AND SEXUAL MISCONDUCT
The U.S. Coast Guard’s Role in Alcohol and Other Drug Testing
Investigation and Administrative Action
Alcohol Policies at the Maritime Academies
3 Mariner Alcohol and Other Substance Use, Sexual Misconduct, and Well-Being
Alcohol and Other Substance Use
U.S. COAST GUARD REPORTS AND ACTIONS
Data Sources for Alcohol and Other Substance Misuse Reports
Enforcement Actions for Alcohol
U.S. Coast Guard and Sexual Misconduct
ANNUAL REPORTS FROM THE MARITIME ACADEMIES AND AUDITS
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
MARITIME TRAINING INSTITUTES/PROVIDERS AND MERCHANT MARINER ACADEMIES
Boxes, Figures, and Tables
BOXES
2-1 Scope of Operations and Industry Segments in U.S. Waterborne Trades
2-2 MARAD’s Statutory Areas of Oversight and Support for the SMAs
2-4 The U.S. Coast Guard Drug and Alcohol Testing Program Applicable Regulations
2-5 46 C.F.R. § 16.230 (1991). Random Testing Requirements
2-6 Mandatory Drug and Alcohol Data Reporting
2-10 U.S. Commercial Vessel Operators Enrolled in EMBARC
4-1 Typical Aviation CRM Training Curriculum with Individual and Team Focus
6-1 SAMHSA’s Definition of Trauma
FIGURES
2-1 Number of graduates and unlimited licensed graduates of the maritime academies, 2018–2024
2-2 Graduate placement from the maritime academies, 2018–2024
3-1 USMMA Sea Year Survey pressure to drink or use drugs question, July 2018 to March 2024
3-2 USMMA Sea Year Survey inappropriate sexual advances question, July 2018 to March 2024
4-1 Section III on the merchant mariner application form (CG-719B)
7-1 Safety culture model characteristics
C-1 Standard drink equivalents
TABLES
2-1 U.S.-Flag Fleet of Ocean, Coastal, Harbor, and Inland Vessels for 2023
2-2 U.S.-Flag Deep Draft Ocean-going Vessels for January 2025
2-4 U.S. Vessel Population Statistics Associated with Overnight Voyages
2-5 Number of Mariners Holding Merchant Mariner Credentials by Credential Type, as of April 2025
3-1 Alcohol Incidents Leading to a Merchant Mariner Credential Enforcement Action, 2019–2024
3-3 Number and Percentage of Alcohol Misconduct Cases by Ship Type, Calendar Years 2019–2024
3-5 Summary of Distinct Merchant Mariner Credential Sanction Counts by Enforcement Type
3-6 Reports of Sexual Misconduct and Assault to the U.S. Coast Guard, Fiscal Year 2024
3-7 Administrative Investigations for Merchant Mariner Credential Enforcement, Fiscal Year 2024
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Preface
Few Americans fully understand the immense scale and impact of the U.S. maritime industry, let alone the challenges facing its hundreds of thousands of workers. Yet the evidence of the industry’s importance is as plain as the goods on our shelves, the activities on our coasts and ports, and the defense of our shores. It is this value that underlies the responsibility to protect its workforce from harm resulting from alcohol and other substance misuse and sexual misconduct.
Over the last five years, this responsibility has driven significant reform in the maritime industry and led to this National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (National Academies) report to assess what has been done to date and what more might be accomplished. The National Academies assembled a diverse committee that includes experts on sexual misconduct, alcohol and other substance use, and the workplace; authorities in the well-being of Seafarers, the economics of the merchant marine, and the practices of other safety-sensitive industries; experienced mariners and academy educators; and even a former Captain. In considering the difficult question of how best to reduce the chance of tragedy, we learned from each other and from the broad array of people who generously shared their time, expertise, experience, and opinions over a period of about 15 months.
What resulted is a report both comprehensive and thematic. It is both a compendium of ideas for supporting the workplace at sea and a call to action that sets high expectations for policymakers, regulators, educators, unions, and Seafarers alike. As one of the committee members with public health experience, I particularly appreciated the priority placed by my
colleagues on an integrated assessment of systematic solutions and a vision that centers the prevention of harm over an expectation that punishment alone will drive long-term, meaningful change.
I thank all who contributed to this effort, including the able and undervalued National Academies staff. I deeply appreciate the efforts of Molly C. Dorries, Emily A. Vargas, Melissa Welch-Ross, Mark Hutchins, Katherine K. Demarest, Thomas Menzies, Sitara Rahaib, J. Ashton Ray, Tiffany Taylor, and Daniel J. Weiss.
We all depend on the hard work of U.S. mariners who make our modern lives possible. It has been an honor to work on this effort to support their success.
Joshua M. Sharfstein, M.D., Chair
Committee on Alcohol at Sea
December 2025
Acronyms and Abbreviations
| A&A | allyship and affinity |
| ACEs | adverse childhood experiences |
| AME | Aviation Medical Examiner |
| BAC | blood alcohol concentration |
| BAT | Breath Alcohol Technician |
| BRM | bridge resource management |
| CDC | U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |
| CER | Canada Energy Regulator |
| CFR | Code of Federal Regulations |
| CGIS | U.S. Coast Guard Investigative Services |
| CG-MMC | U.S. Coast Guard’s Office of Merchant Mariner Credentialing |
| COI | Certificate of Inspection |
| COTP | Captain of the Port |
| CRM | crew resource management |
| CSP | Cable Fleet Security Program |
| C/TPA | Consortium/third party administrator |
| DAPI | U.S. Coast Guard Drug and Alcohol Program Inspector |
| DOD | U.S. Department of Defense |
| DOJ | U.S. Department of Justice |
| DOT | U.S. Department of Transportation |
| EAP | employee assistance program |
| EMBARC | Every Mariner Builds A Respectful Culture |
| ERRM | engine room resource management |
| FAA | Federal Aviation Administration |
| FY | fiscal year |
| GRT | gross registered tonnage |
| ILO | International Labor Organization |
| IMO | International Maritime Organization |
| ISM | International Safety Management |
| ISWAN | International Seafarers’ Welfare and Assistance Network |
| JTWG | Joint ILO/IMO Tripartite Working Group |
| MARAD | U.S. Maritime Administration |
| MIS | Management Information System |
| MISLE | U.S. Coast Guard Marine Information Safety and Law Enforcement System |
| MLC | Maritime Labor Convention |
| MMC | Merchant Mariner Credential |
| MMLD | Merchant Mariner Licensing and Documentation |
| MRM | maritime resource management |
| MRO | Medical Review Officer |
| MSC | U.S. Navy’s Military Sealift Command |
| MSP | Maritime Security Program |
| MTS | U.S. Maritime Transportation Systems |
| NDAA | National Defense Authorization Act |
| NDRF | National Defense Reserve Fleet |
| NIAAA | National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism |
| NIDA | National Institute on Drug Abuse |
| NMC | U.S. Coast Guard’s National Maritime Center |
| NMEDMAC | National Merchant Mariner Advisory Committee |
| NSMV | National Security Multi-Mission Vessel |
| OCMI | Officer in Charge, Marine Inspection |
| OSIE | DOD On Site Installation and Evaluation program |
| OSV | offshore supply vessel |
| PCP | phencyclidine piperidine |
| PTSD | post-traumatic stress disorder |
| RO | Recognized Organization |
| RO/RO | roll on/roll off |
| RRF | Ready Reserve Fleet |
| S&R NCOE | Suspension and Revocation National Center of Expertise |
| SAGR | Service Academy Gender Relations |
| SAMHSA | Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration |
| SAP | Substance Abuse Professional |
| SASH | Sexual Assault and Sexual Harassment |
| SBIRT | screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment |
| SIOP | Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology |
| SIP | Student Incentive Program |
| SMA | state maritime academy |
| SMS | Safety Management Systems |
| SOCP | Ship Operations Cooperative Program |
| SOLAS | Safety of Life at Sea |
| STCW | Standards of Training, Certification, and Watchkeeping |
| STT | Screening Test Technicians |
| SUD | substance use disorder |
| TRB | Transportation Research Board |
| TSP | Tanker Security Program |
| TWIC | Transportation Worker Identification Credential |
| UCF | University of Central Florida |
| UN | United Nations |
| USACE | U.S. Army Corp of Engineers |
| USMM | U.S. Merchant Marine |
| USMMA | U.S. Merchant Marine Academy |
| VRM | vessel resource management |
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