Summary
The U.S. maritime industry is a pillar of the U.S. economy and national defense, involving more than 10,500 self-propelled vessels that ply thousands of miles of waterway—from the Great Lakes and inland rivers to the intracoastal channels and open oceans. U.S.-flagged vessels carry Alaskan crude oil to West Coast refineries; haul containerized cargo between Florida and Puerto Rico and the West Coast and Hawaii; transport grain and other agricultural commodities on the inland rivers to domestic markets and gateway seaports for export; supply offshore energy facilities; ferry passengers locally; transport and accommodate tourists on longer-distance cruises; and so much more. However, this historically critical American industry is also struggling. In addition to experiencing a sustained decline in American shipbuilding, the industry is failing to attract and retain a sufficient workforce, a problem that has been exacerbated by decreasing enrollment in U.S. maritime academies (both SMAs and the USMMA).1
Strengthening the maritime workforce requires attention to its challenges. Over the last several years, a number of highly publicized instances of sexual misconduct in the maritime industry involved alcohol use. The headlines drew national attention, led to Congressional action, and triggered multiple changes in policies and practices across the U.S. maritime academies, industry, and the U.S. Coast Guard. This report presents the results of a study called for by Congress and commissioned by the U.S. Coast Guard about the problems arising from the possession and consumption of alcohol at sea and the actions taken to address them. The study’s charge is
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1 https://www.maritime.dot.gov/sites/marad.dot.gov/files/2024-12/NDAA%202024_1.pdf
broad, requiring an assessment that considers operational and workplace factors that inform alcohol misuse; the contributing role of alcohol and other substances to harmful and dangerous behaviors, including sexual misconduct; the effectiveness of federal regulations and policies to deter misuse; the state of science on best practices for regulating workplace alcohol use and for preventing intoxication and sexual misconduct; and the extent to which current regulations and policies pertaining to the maritime industry align with these best practices.
Conducted by an expert committee, the study starts from the premise that taking actions to prevent alcohol misuse is far preferable to responding to the consequences. Drawing upon the interconnections among alcohol and other substance use, sexual misconduct, and mariner well-being, the committee reviewed the relevant policy and programmatic framework as well as the state of existing evidence on the nature and scale of these problems. This context informed the committee’s recommendations for both specific standards and guidelines as well as for fundamental approaches to enhance leadership and a safety-focused culture.
The committee directs each recommendation to one governmental entity for leadership and accountability. At the same time, the committee recognizes the need for multiple entities in government (including the U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, and others) and outside of government (including companies, unions, support organizations, and others) to work together for the effective implementation of all of the recommendations. The study committee was not in a position to assess the jurisdiction or statutory authorities of each subject agency to carry out the recommended actions. In those instances where such authority is unclear or lacking, the committee believes that the agencies should seek the needed clarity and authorities. To be sure, many of the recommended actions will require a devotion of resources, direction, and other actions by Congress in response to this legislatively mandated study.
REDUCE ACCEPTABLE BLOOD ALCOHOL LEVELS FOR MARINERS ON DUTY AND PROHIBIT ALCOHOL POSSESSION BY CREW
Where the historic image of drinking at sea may be a vision of camaraderie around fictional sea shanties like “Yo Ho Ho and a Bottle of Rum,” the reality is that the misuse of alcohol and other substances is a safety hazard, with consequences that include sexual misconduct and interpersonal violence, as well as collisions, allisions, and other maritime catastrophes. A thoughtful and effective policy on alcohol use is as vital for health and wellbeing of mariners as it is for the U.S. Coast Guard’s mission of maintaining maritime safety, security, and environmental protection.
Today, the level of an unacceptable blood alcohol concentration (BAC) for mariners is set by U.S. Coast Guard regulation at .04% (.04 g/dL), with flexibility for individual companies to set lower thresholds.2 Other transportation industries—including aviation, railroad, and trucking—are subject to the same .04% legal standard. However, these other industries—but not the maritime industry—are also required to prohibit active duty when BAC is greater than .02%.
This regulatory gap is material to health and safety in the maritime industry. The ability to sustain attention and remain alert shows impairments at .03% and above, the ability to accurately process and respond to information is impacted at levels as low as .021%, and impairment in steering ability begins at BACs as low as .035%.
Recommendation 5-1: To improve maritime safety and crew readiness, the U.S. Coast Guard should:
- Update the U.S. Coast Guard policy to align with other transportation modes and require removal from duty at blood alcohol concentration (BAC) levels of .02–.039%.
- Require reporting of reasonable-cause tests where apparent intoxication led to removal from duty when the confirmed BAC falls between .02–.039%.
Recommendation 5-2: To minimize potential for alcohol use that exceeds acceptable standards, the U.S. Coast Guard should prohibit alcohol possession and use by crew on U.S.-flagged vessels.
UPDATE ALCOHOL AND OTHER DRUG TESTING STANDARDS
Alcohol and other drug testing is considered standard in transportation industries, and is conducted pre-employment, on a random basis, for reasonable cause, and after incidents. However, unlike in the aviation, railroad, and trucking industries, U.S. Coast Guard regulations for the maritime industry do not require random testing for alcohol alongside other drugs.
Another gap relates to the drugs included in routine tests. U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) regulations—adopted by the U.S. Coast Guard—include a standard five-panel that covers marijuana, phenylcyclohexyl piperidine (PCP), some opioids, amphetamines, and cocaine. This panel does not include benzodiazepines, fentanyls, and other impairing
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2 See Chapter 2 for details regarding the U.S. Coast Guard’s approach to positive tests below .04% BAC.
substances, which should be considered based on evolving understanding of substance use among mariners and industry best practices.
Addressing these issues will require resources, but the U.S. Coast Guard’s program for overseeing alcohol and other drug testing has seen a reduction in funding in recent years.
Recommendation 5-3: Consistent with requirements applicable to most other commercial transportation modes, the U.S. Coast Guard should require vessel operators to include alcohol in random testing programs. The U.S. Coast Guard should re-evaluate and align the purpose, staffing, and funding levels of its Drug and Alcohol Program Inspector obligations for compliance monitoring and enforcement. The U.S. Coast Guard should ensure that the panel of substances that is covered by drug testing is kept up to date with industry best practices for identifying impairing substances.
STRENGTHEN PREVENTION AND RESPONSE FOR SEXUAL MISCONDUCT
The committee found that the existing policies and procedures in the maritime domain pertaining to the misuse of alcohol and other substances and sexual misconduct are a disjointed patchwork, lacking consistency and not always aligned with best practices characteristic of safety-critical, high reliability industries.
For example, the DOT Maritime Administration (MARAD) and U.S. Merchant Marine Academy (USMMA) created the Every Mariner Builds a Respectful Culture (EMBARC) program in December 2021, which Congress codified a year later. EMBARC is a sexual assault prevention and response initiative for commercial ocean-going vessels that carry USMMA Cadets. To participate in EMBARC, among other measures companies must adopt a safety management system, provide certain training related to sexual misconduct, and adopt structural changes such as cameras in common areas. EMBARC’s rapid establishment following allegations of sexual misconduct on commercial vessels demonstrates how quickly change can occur. However, the fact that only a relatively small subset of vessels (i.e., ships carrying Cadets) participate demonstrates the inconsistencies in the industry’s protections. EMBARC has yet to be evaluated.
Important steps for addressing sexual misconduct include alternative dispute resolution, early response to misconduct, bystander support, and training.
Recommendation 4-2: The U.S. Maritime Administration should lead an evidence-based study of the effectiveness of the Every Mariner Builds
A Respectful Culture Program in helping to prevent and respond to sexual misconduct and other forms of prohibited behaviors on commercial vessels at sea.
Recommendation 5-4: The U.S. Coast Guard should identify standards for the maritime industry to adopt alternative dispute resolution, early response, and bystander support for sexual misconduct. These standards should protect mariners on U.S.-flagged vessels, not just on vessels that participate in the Every Mariner Builds a Respectful Culture program.
INVEST IN MARINER HEALTH AND WELL-BEING
Company wellness policies and programs have the potential to support both the physical and mental well-being of mariners in the work environment. They can include access to gyms, connectivity on the internet, participation in safety teams, regular shift schedules and adequate staffing, and employee assistance programs. Further research is needed to understand which types of support are most impactful in different maritime settings.
Also critical for mariner health and well-being is ready access to health care for physical and mental health conditions, including treatment for substance use disorders. Components of access include the ability to pay, available providers, and the means to reach providers. However, little is known about how well mariners can access health services. One obstacle to timely medical care is state telemedicine laws that can prohibit licensed providers in one state from providing care to mariners out of state while at sea.
Professional health programs have helped other safety-sensitive industries navigate the nuances of balancing accountability and support for recovery while still maintaining the safety of the industry. Similarly, when there is evidence of a substance use disorder, mariners should be referred to effective treatment.
Recommendation 5-5: The U.S. Maritime Administration should develop a research program to improve maritime employee well-being. This research should assess different interventions and their impact on rates of social isolation, depression, anxiety, and substance use among mariners, as well as their sense of belonging and support in their work. The research should also explore the minimum staffing levels required to maintain employee well-being.
Such research should inform regularly updated guidance for mariner employers to enhance employee well-being. The guidance should cover, at a minimum, the information pertaining to access to exercise
equipment, safety teams, connectivity, shift schedules, and employee support and assistance programs.
Recommendation 5-6: The U.S. Maritime Administration should conduct an assessment of insurance coverage, employee assistance programs, and clinician licensing rules that apply to the care of mariners, including when they are at sea. This assessment should include whether new standards are needed to provide mariners with meaningful access to effective treatment services for mental health and substance use disorders.
Recommendation 5-7: The U.S. Congress should consider allowing licensed medical professionals to provide medical care to mariners on ships, within the scope of their training and license, regardless of a mariner’s location.
Recommendation 6-5: The U.S. Maritime Administration, working with the U.S. Coast Guard, maritime employers, and mariner unions, should support the establishment of a support and response network, which would provide resources, independent expert advice, support and referrals to professional services for mariners impacted by sexual misconduct, alcohol and other substance misuse, and other mental health conditions. This network should also include a formal professional health program, a Mariner Assistance Program for all mariners, modeled on best practices from other safety-sensitive industries.
COLLECT BETTER DATA ON CHALLENGES FACING THE MARITIME WORKFORCE
Despite longstanding concern about alcohol and other substance misuse and their consequences in the maritime industry, available evidence on these issues has been limited. The best data come from national workforce surveys, which indicate that 32.8% of maritime workers report binge drinking, compared to 21.5% of the general population.3 Most studies on the subject, however, involve relatively few participants and typically have a singular focus, giving little attention to the relationships between alcohol and other drug use, sexual misconduct, and other dimensions of mariner health and well-being. There is no regular survey assessing these issues specifically in the maritime industry.
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3 Evoy, R., & Case, S. (2021). Prevalence of adverse health behaviors and conditions among maritime workers, BRFSS 2014 to 2018, 38 states. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 64(4), 350–355. https://doi.org/10.1097/jom.0000000000002430
Among the limited sources of data about alcohol and sexual misconduct in the maritime industry are surveys of Cadets and reports of rules violation and enforcement. During their training year at sea, between 2% and 10% of Cadets at the USMMA report pressure to drink alcohol and about the same proportion experience unwanted sexual attention. At the USMMA, by the most recent survey, 60% of women and 11% of men report sexual harassment; just one in five women Cadets who experienced harassment indicated that they filed an official report. Information about positive tests, reports of inappropriate behavior, investigations, and disciplinary actions, scattered across agencies—generally reflect low levels of reporting and enforcement.
Recommendation 3-1: The U.S. Coast Guard should initiate a data collection and maintenance effort for the entire U.S. maritime industry, including the maritime academies, that can be used to assess mariner alcohol and other substance use and misuse, well-being, and sexual misconduct.
The goal should be to bring together results from Cadet surveys, alcohol and other drug testing, and disciplinary actions for sexual misconduct, use and misuse of alcohol and other substances, and to supplement this information with regularly conducted mariner surveys. The surveys should be designed to assess the population-level prevalence of risky behaviors by U.S. mariners, trends over time, and the degree to which they are reported. A sample set of questions that might be included in a mariner survey is offered in this report.
RAISE EXPECTATIONS FOR MARITIME INSTITUTES AND ACADEMIES
U.S. maritime institutes and academies provide training, community-building, and socialization for the next generation of mariners. Cadets are introduced to seafaring norms and behavioral expectations before beginning their career. At the same time, residential maritime academies face similar challenges with alcohol and other drug use and sexual misconduct as other college campuses.
The committee interviewed leaders of several mariner education and training programs who discussed the challenges of preparing Cadets for a satisfying and successful career in the maritime workforce. But the discussion did not reveal a common set of expectations for maritime institutes and academies for relevant training, campus policies, and disciplinary approaches. Nor did they surface a common reporting effort or an expectation that progress will be assessed as part of the accreditation progress.
There also have been recent changes in some community-building opportunities on campus. For a number of years, USMMA encouraged students to join affinity groups to be able to share common experiences and develop a sense of belonging. However, these programs were eliminated in January 2025 following Executive Order 14168.4
Recommendation 4-1: The U.S. Maritime Administration should provide the maritime academies and training institutes with guidance based on best practices for curricula, campus policies, and educational and training materials that address the use and misuse of alcohol and other substances, sexual misconduct prevention, and development of healthy maritime safety cultures. Adherence to the guidance should be assessed as part of each institution’s accreditation activities, evaluated for positive impacts, and included in each institution’s leadership training and educational objectives.
IMPROVE PRE-EMPLOYMENT SCREENING, RE-CREDENTIALING, AND TRAINING
Pre-employment screening and re-credentialing of applicants for mariner positions present an opportunity to identify those candidates who may not be suited for a career at sea and those who may be suited but who would benefit from services and supports. However, U.S. Coast Guard regulations (e.g., as implemented through Form CG-719B) do not require the use of validated screening tools for these purposes. The regulations focus more on self-reported past diagnosis than on current impairment and do not facilitate referral to support and treatment services.
In addition, the U.S. Coast Guard’s recredentialing requirements do not require mariners to disclose major changes in risk factors—including in their justice record—until the next application in a five-year cycle. This interval can lead to people remaining in the workforce during times when they may need attention and treatment or when they should be excluded from the workforce altogether.
In addition to screening, pre-employment training is another means to enhance mariner health and well-being. Non-technical skills training focuses on developing the interpersonal and teamwork abilities needed to work safely and effectively in high-pressure environments. It is recognized as best practice across safety-sensitive industries and provides an opportunity to
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4 The White House. (2025, January 21). Defending women from gender ideology extremism and restoring biological truth to the federal government. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/defending-women-from-gender-ideology-extremism-and-restoring-biological-truth-to-the-federal-government/
reinforce how respectful workplace behavior directly supports operational excellence and overall performance. However, there is no set of best practices or standards in U.S. maritime industry for pre-employment training.
Recommendation 4-3: The U.S. Coast Guard should update the Application for Merchant Mariner Credential (Form CG-719B) to incorporate validated alcohol and other substance use screening tools that will help identify applicants at risk of impairment. When applicants screen positive, they should be encouraged to meet with a Substance Abuse Professional who can perform a more thorough assessment and, when appropriate, guide applicants to appropriate interventions that could improve the chances of success when they reapply.
Recommendation 4-4: To support mariner safety, the U.S. Coast Guard should require credentialed mariners to disclose new convictions or administrative actions promptly (such as within 30 days of the judgment) or face disciplinary actions ranging from a warning to credential suspension. This legal and administrative history should be reviewed by the U.S. Coast Guard prior to credential renewal periods to determine whether it is appropriate for the mariner to remain at sea.
Recommendation 4-5: The U.S. Maritime Administration should engage with experts in human factors, career management, and addiction to develop best practice guidance on enhanced non-technical skills competence for mariners. The guidance should:
- Cover training curricula and delivery mechanisms for all mariners that is suited to role and rank, applicable to initial and recurrent training, and informed by contemporary programs in other high hazard industries;
- Include curricula with enhanced content that raises awareness about the impacts of alcohol and other substance use and misuse on individual, crew, and operational performance; and
- Include content regarding impacts of sexual misconduct, and the intersection with alcohol and other substance use and misuse, on operational readiness and performance.
IMPROVE REPORTING AND RESPONSE
It is impossible to respond to an unreported incident. Reporting in the maritime industry may be enhanced through measures that protect confidentiality and provide amnesty to the reporting party, prevent retaliation, and require a trauma-informed response to incidents.
Confidentiality is an important element of the reporting process. In the U.S. military, individuals can file either unrestricted reports or restricted
reports of sexual misconduct. Unrestricted reports lead to a specific investigation and its consequences but cannot assure confidentiality to survivors. Restricted reports do not necessarily lead to an investigation, preserving confidentiality while still offering support for survivors. By contrast, in the maritime industry, U.S. law requires that all reporting of sexual misconduct or alcohol and other substance misuse be unrestricted, with no guarantee of confidentiality. There is a tension between the desire to investigate all cases of sexual misconduct and respect for the preferences of survivors. The best way to appropriately balance these issues is still to be determined in multiple contexts, including military, and should be further assessed for the maritime industry.
Also facilitating reporting is amnesty, within reasonable bounds, for violations of other company or regulatory policies. Individuals who have been drinking alcohol may fear that reporting sexual misconduct will lead to their own expulsion on the grounds of violating alcohol policy. Section 11605 of National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2023 (Pub. L. No. 117-263 § 11608) includes a provision granting individuals who report sexual misconduct immunity from alcohol policy violations. Similarly, the USMMA provides such amnesty for Cadets reporting sexual misconduct during their Sea Year. However, there is no consistent amnesty approach across the industry. Similarly, there is no standard for policies that block retaliation against individuals who report alcohol or other drug use or sexual misconduct.
How a report is handled can influence the participation of an individual in an investigation and affect whether other mariners come forward with their own reports. With support from MARAD, the Ship Operations Cooperative Program (a non-profit organization of maritime stakeholders) issued a guide in 2024 that provides a best-practice set of recommendations supporting survivors during the reporting process, including through the adoption of trauma-informed practices.
Recommendation 6-1: The U.S. Coast Guard should develop a model amnesty policy for individuals reporting alcohol and other drug use and sexual misconduct, which should be considered for broad adoption in the maritime industry.
Recommendation 6-2: The U.S. Coast Guard should provide model policy language and require reporting from vessel companies about their retaliation policies.
Recommendation 6-3: The U.S. Coast Guard should require training for Service personnel responsible for responding to alcohol and other substance misuse, or sexual assault maritime incidents, from initial
investigation and reporting through administrative or other subsequent mariner proceedings. Training should cover how to apply a trauma-informed approach to investigations and the entire response process.
SUPPORT ACCOUNTABILITY AND LEADERSHIP TO ESTABLISH A CULTURE OF HEALTH AND SAFETY IN THE MARITIME INDUSTRY
As recognized by the Statement of Task, the establishment of a culture of health and safety is critical for the effective implementation of the efforts discussed in this report. Establishing that culture requires leadership across the multiple independent but closely interrelated entities that make up the maritime industry, including the merchant marine academies, companies, unions, and their individual ships. It also requires that vessel captains and senior shipboard and shoreside managers be held accountable for incidents and for working to address the challenges facing the maritime workforce. Just as there are consequences for those in charge after a collision or other major safety incident, there should be consequences for neglecting problems with alcohol and other drug use and sexual misconduct.
More broadly, leaders in the maritime industry should be expected to build a strong and resilient work team on a vessel by setting goals and standards for the workplace, promoting safe work habits, and promptly addressing unwanted behaviors.
Recommendation 6-4: The U.S. Coast Guard should strengthen the system of accountability, particularly for vessel Captains and senior shipboard and shoreside leadership, regarding alcohol and other substance misuse and sexual misconduct safety incidents.
Recommendation 7-1: The U.S. Coast Guard should develop and recommend for implementation across the maritime industry a best practice guide, including a suite of assessment tools, for identifying and understanding leadership and cultural vulnerabilities at the level of companies, ships, and senior shipboard and shoreside leaders. These guidance and assessment tools would support learning and continual improvement at each level, and they should be updated as the evidence evolves.
Recommendation 7-2: The U.S. Maritime Administration should support research in the building and maintenance of healthy cultures of safety aboard ship and ashore, and the impact of leadership and organizational- and system-level influences on alcohol and other substance use or misuse and sexual misconduct.
The U.S. maritime industry, vital to the security and prosperity of the nation, depends on a healthy and safe workforce. The committee deeply appreciates the work of all of those involved in this industry and makes these recommendations to support their success.
