International Talent Programs in the Changing Global Environment (2024)
Chapter: 5 How Do Other Countries Attract and Retain Talent?
5
How Do Other Countries Attract and Retain Talent?1
Every nation would like to attract the best and brightest from around the world and to retain its domestic talent, particularly those who have benefited from investment through its educational system. Individual strategies vary with perceptions of need and opportunity, and policy specifics may reflect both long-term strategies and economic and political considerations of the day. They may also align with other national policies on industrial development and education, to the extent that these are emphasized. Because circumstances differ from country to country, there is no one model or set of effective practices that can be prescribed. However, there is a rich variety of approaches to talent attraction and retention around the world, some of which may provide useful lessons for the United States on how it might improve its own talent attractiveness and recruitment.
REVIEW OF TALENT ATTRACTIVENESS
The conditions under which students and professionals seek opportunities within their own countries and abroad have become increasingly competitive. Maintaining a competitive edge in innovation and economic growth, both critical elements of national security, has created a greater
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1 This chapter incorporates material from the commissioned paper “Survey of United States Allies’ Talent Programs” by Taylor A. Grove.
emphasis on attracting and retaining talent from both new and old epicenters of population growth and thought leadership. South Asia (including India and Pakistan), Sub-Saharan Africa (including Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Uganda, and Ethiopia), Indonesia, and the United States will represent 50 percent of the global population by 2050 (UNDESA, n.d.). The World Intellectual Property Organization Global Innovation Index, most recently updated in 2023, noted that Vietnam, Morocco, Moldova, Senegal, Indonesia, and Pakistan had innovation outputs that overperformed their level of development (Dutta et al., 2023). Future U.S. policies will need to reflect and leverage these population and innovation trends.
Chapter 4 of this report introduced the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) talent attractiveness score. The OECD developed the Indicators of Talent Attractiveness (ITA) tool to benchmark the capacity of a country to attract and retain talented migrants. The ITA framework focuses on three categories of talented migrants— highly qualified workers (i.e., advanced degree holders), international entrepreneurs, and university students (OECD, 2019, 2023e). The different emphases that countries place on attracting and retaining these three populations provide important insights into their policy strategies. For example, as discussed in Chapter 4, the United States has historically relied on the strength of its universities to attract international students; on its science and technology infrastructure across industry, academic, and government sectors to attract and retain highly qualified workers; and on its business climate and access to capital to attract entrepreneurs. Since talent flows have typically been into the United States, relatively little effort has been devoted to attracting individuals who have left the country for study or careers elsewhere in the world. In contrast, a major focus of Chinese talent programs has been on attracting students and professionals from the Chinese diaspora to return to China. This includes ethnic Chinese who may not hail from the People’s Republic of China originally. Other countries that send large numbers of students abroad, especially for advanced degrees, also have an interest in returning talents, although the investments to date by countries like India are at a smaller scale than the Chinese example. The European Union and the Five Eyes countries2 more closely resemble the United States
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2 The Five Eyes countries—the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand—have a long-standing intelligence alliance. See https://www.intelligence.gov/mission/our-values/344-collaboration.
with respect to their strategies for attracting and retaining talent, although there is a rich variety of policy instruments and programs among individual member states. One thing that differentiates the United States from these allies is that, in the United States, health insurance is generally tied to employment. Health care concerns may play a role in a variety of decisions, including whether to come to the United States and whether to pursue changes of employment when on a nonimmigrant visa, especially if the decision involves health care for accompanying immediate family members.
The OECD’s ITA framework comprises seven dimensions that address economic factors, social integration, and migration policies, each with specific variables tailored to the migrant category. With the two most recent OECD reports straddling the COVID-19 pandemic (2019 and 2023e), the 2023 publication noted the pandemic affected talent mobility and highlighted the reliance on migrant workers for essential services. Migration policy reforms varied globally since the conclusion of the public health emergency, with some countries opening up and others imposing more stringent policies. Policy changes that reduced barriers to entry and offered greater support to target audiences, especially related to postgraduation opportunities, enhanced a country’s attractiveness.
The OECD’s ITA metric named New Zealand, Sweden, Switzerland, Australia, and Norway as the countries with the top five most attractive programs for highly skilled migrants (OECD, 2023e). The United States, while benefiting substantially from foreign workers in the form of increased labor market efficiency and economic growth, was rated less favorably because of restrictive visa policies (Sherman et al., 2019). The five countries with the most attractive programs and environment for international entrepreneurs were Sweden, Switzerland, Canada, Norway, and New Zealand. U.S. visa policies were again the root of its comparatively less attractive programs for entrepreneurs. For international students, however, the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, Norway, and Australia were the countries with the most attractive programs and policies. Smaller countries such as Norway have become attractive since the 2019 report by instituting lower tuition fees and offering applicants support resources.
Policies aimed at attracting global talent are not always easily comparable, as their target audiences, duration, and level of applicant support vary. However, some key considerations include the specific sector and specializations a policy targets; how the policy approaches diversity and integration, particularly in catering toward developing or developed
state audiences; and the degree to which a policy or national strategy is informed or affected by geopolitical competition. The profiles in this chapter also note if a policy is supply-led, in which application pools are broad and often points-based (see Box 5-1), or demand driven, which are more selective in their audience and aim to fill a specific gap within a national economy.
BOX 5-1
Points-Based Immigration Systems
A points-based immigration system is one way to determine eligibility for skills-based immigration. In such a system, a government devises a set of attributes or characteristics that it deems “important for prospective foreign workers … to possess to receive a temporary, provisional, or permanent visa” (Sumption, 2015). Different qualifications—including but not limited to education level, employment experience, specialized skills, language proficiency, and age—are assigned a specific point value, and applicants who amass a sufficient number of points are eligible to apply for a visa independent of employment or an employer-sponsored visa (Holtz-Eakin and Varas, 2019; Zamora and Mason, 2017). A points-based immigration system was first used by Canada in the late 1960s and has since been implemented and adapted by additional countries, including Australia, Austria, Denmark, Hong Kong, New Zealand, Singapore, and the United Kingdom (American Immigration Council, 2017; Beach, 2006; Kerr, 2018; Sumption, 2015; The Economist, 2015).
Points-based immigration systems have strengths and weaknesses in international talent attraction and retention. A points-based system can favor highly skilled immigrants who can garner high wages (The Week, 2020; Zamora and Mason, 2017). Points-based immigration systems also are seen as having faster application processing times, being fair and nondiscriminatory, and being transparent, as applicants should be able to review the selection criteria and discern whether they should be able to attain the requisite number of points (Halse, 2023; The Week, 2020). Such a system, however, requires the collection of large-scale sets of immigration data (and creates associated costs), and may reduce the ability to control or limit migration, as
PROGRAMS USED BY OTHER NATIONS TO RECRUIT AND RETAIN STEM TALENT
The following section contains an overview of the range of programs, along with their associated structures and incentives, employed by other countries with the goal of recruiting and retaining science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) talent. While each country tailors programs to its particular situation, it is clear that immigration and visa
well as increase the potential for abuse (The Week, 2020). Moreover, points-based immigration systems do not ensure that selected immigrants have full employment (Kerr, 2018). Some also see points-based systems as “grounded more in politics than neutrality,” as the points are devised with attributes of the most desirable foreign nationals while other groups are disadvantaged (Halse, 2023).
The United States currently has a policy that includes prioritizing family-based immigration, in which a U.S. citizen or legal permanent resident (an individual holding a Green Card) can sponsor relatives from their country of origin, in addition to employer-led selection, in which an employer determines the workers they need in accordance with government regulations (Barros, 2017; Papademetriou and Sumption, 2011). The United States does not employ a points-based immigration system—and moving toward such a system would “represent a significant shift in U.S. immigration policy that could have economic and demographic impacts” (Zamora and Mason, 2017). President Donald Trump called for such a system, among other immigration-related changes, in his first address to Congress on February 28, 2017.a This resulted in the introduction of S. 354, The Reforming American Immigration for Strong Employment Act (The RAISE Act) in the Senate in 2017, which would have reduced immigration, ended the prioritization of family sponsorship, and added a points-based component (American Immigration Council, 2017). The bill did not advance; other proposed immigration reform legislation over the years that would have included a points-based immigration system has not had success in getting through Congress.
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a See President Trump’s first address to Congress at https://time.com/4686621/trump-congress-address-transcript/.
policies that attract highly skilled workers, students, and entrepreneurs are central features of all.
However, immigration policies can be subject to shifts in economic and political conditions, even when there is a recognized need to cultivate talent. The COVID-19 pandemic exposed gaps in meeting workforce needs as well as the fragility of global supply chains. The world’s recovery from the pandemic has raised concerns about issues such as inflation, housing costs, and education access that have become the lens through which immigration policies and their ramifications are viewed by some. Such concerns are not unique to any country, and the post-COVID-19 era has seen more restrictive measures implemented in Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom, among other countries (Adams, 2024; Crowe, 2024; Government of Canada, 2024a; ICEF Monitor, 2024a, 2024c; Laker, 2024; Mercer, 2024; Shorelight, 2024; Singer, 2024; UK Government, 2024; Wesley, 2024). As one example, the previous government in the United Kingdom instituted rules, effective in 2024, preventing most international students from bringing family members to the country (Bloch, 2024; Havergal, 2024; Jack, 2024; Shearing, 2024). This illustrates that the attraction and retention of talent involves more than the researchers alone.
The examples that follow are intended to illustrate policies and programs aimed at the attraction and retention of international talent. Recent changes driven by concerns about immigration in general are noted as appropriate. The European Union (EU) and Five Eyes countries are grouped together to facilitate comparison, followed by additional examples from Asian countries. China, Russia, and Iran are considered separately in Chapter 6 in order to permit a more detailed historical perspective on the rise of talent programs there. The committee is aware of talent recruitment policies and programs in other countries, including Hong Kong,3 Israel,4
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3 As noted in Box 3-3, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region is considered a country of concern by the U.S. government. Hong Kong operates several different schemes for talent, professionals, and entrepreneurs to work and stay in the Special Administrative Region (Hong Kong Immigration Department, 2024; Hong Kong Talent Engage, 2024). Of particular note is the Top Talent Pass Scheme, which was announced in 2022 with the goal of widely enticing “top-notch talents to Hong Kong” (European Chamber of Commerce in Hong Kong, 2022). The China Resources Research Institute of Science & Technology seeks to recruit talent from Hong Kong to engage with the Institute’s main facility in China (CRRIST, n.d.). The committee notes that Hong Kong is an increasingly attractive destination for students in mainland China (Nuwer, 2023).
4 Content on Israel’s talent recruitment programs can be found in the commissioned paper by Taylor A. Grove.
Macau,5 Saudi Arabia,6 Taiwan,7 the United Arab Emirates,8 and South American nations,9 but has chosen not to include them in the representative sample presented in this report.
The European Union
The EU, as a transnational body, facilitates and supports the exchange of students and professionals across its member state borders. In attracting and retaining talent from outside the bloc, however, the EU has successfully implemented several programs that complement the national programs of member nations. EU policy on attracting global talent is focused on student support, family reunification, and certain long-term residency permissions for non-EU citizens to live and work without travel restrictions within EU states.
The EU offers support programs for temporary workers (often low-wage), high-skilled workers, and professionals working for an international company or organization that seek to work temporarily from within
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5 As noted in Box 3-3, the Macau Special Administrative Region is considered a country of concern by the U.S. government. Macau implemented a new “Legal System for Talent Recruitment,” effective on July 1, 2023 (Macao Special Administrative Region, 2023). Three new programs compose the Talent Recruitment System: the High-end Talents Programme, the Outstanding Talents Programme, and the Advanced Professionals Programme (Macao Special Administrative Region, 2023). Macau operates a total of nine different talent recruitment programs overall and seeks to attract nonlocal residents (Macao Special Administrative Region, 2024; Tu, 2024). Universities in Macau, which are not ranked as highly as those in Hong Kong, do not require the kaoyao entrance exam, which is mandatory for admittance to master’s or Ph.D. programs in mainland China (Nuwer, 2023).
6 Content on Saudi Arabia’s talent recruitment programs can be found in Appendix C.
7 The Taiwan Employment Gold Card Office, or “Talent Taiwan,” was established in 2018 and has awarded more than 8,000 gold cards, or visas, since then (Taiwan Employment Gold Card. n.d.; Talent Taiwan, n.d). The National Development Council of Taiwan operated a “Key Talent Cultivation and Recruitment Program” from 2021 to 2024, with the goal of turning Taiwan into a global talent hub (Taiwanese National Development Council, 2024). The National Development Council is now overseeing the International Industrial Talents Education Special (INTENSE) Program, which provides foreigners with scholarships and a living allowance to study and work in Taiwan for 2 years (Lin, 2024). The Talent Circulation Alliance provides additional opportunities for international exchange (Talent Circulation Alliance, n.d.).
8 Content on the United Arab Emirates’ talent recruitment programs can be found in Appendix C.
9 South American nations that operate talent recruitment programs include, but are not limited to, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Peru, and Uruguay.
the EU (European Commission, n.d.d). One of the more popular EU programs is the EU Blue Card, which was rolled out in 2009 (European Commission, n.d.b). The Blue Card incentivizes citizens outside the EU to work in any EU country, with similar free movement rights as citizens of the bloc. Obtaining a Blue Card hinges on work offered to the applicant, and access is restricted to specific occupations. The Blue Card is not intended for entrepreneurs, but it does allow extension of visas to dependents of the applicant.
In April 2022, the European Commission, the executive branch of the European Union, launched an effort to build an EU Talent Pool that would reduce strains on EU employers, curtail exploitation of immigration systems, and sharpen the competitiveness of EU talent programs compared with those of other nations (European Commission, n.d.c; OECD, n.d.a). In December 2023, the commission updated its policy regarding refugees and irregular migration specifically, aiming to balance the burden of cost and responsibility for human flows into the bloc (European Council, 2024). The move was met with mixed reactions and came on the heels of a separate policy announcement that served to bolster the European Research Area (ERA) in attracting young and early-career researchers (European Commission, 2023). ERA includes programs such as the EURAXESS program, which supports students in key research fields, and the RESAVER program, which is a pension support program that enables EU researchers to maintain a consistent pension arrangement when moving between countries and changing jobs (EURAXESS, n.d.b; RESAVER, n.d).
Student programs include the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions program, which supports doctoral education and job hunting for high-level academics, and the Erasmus+ program (European Commission, n.d.a; European Commission, n.d.e). Erasmus+ is the most prominent student exchange program in the EU. While focused on opportunities for EU citizens, partner countries around the world can take advantage of certain components of the program. Key functions of the Erasmus+ program foster cultural exchange, innovation, and workforce development in academics, athletics, and higher education.
Finland
While a smaller country by the number of educational institutions and in gross domestic product (GDP) compared with other EU members discussed in this section, Finland offers a diversity of programs and resources
that have made it attractive to international workers and students. Finland is considered one of the happiest countries in the world and boasts some of the strongest academic programs internationally (Hunter, 2023; U.S. News & World Report, n.d.). This has helped drive talent to Finland, a trend the government seeks to accelerate. By 2030, the government wants to triple the number of foreign students and double the number of foreign workers (Singha, 2024).
The 2023 OECD report ranked Finland highly in quality of life and family environment for students and workers. The only areas the report highlighted as risk areas for international workers in Finland were in the quality of opportunities and future prospects for people with master’s degrees or Ph.D.s (OECD, 2023e). While Finland has taken steps to assist students in staying in the country postgraduation, tuition increases for students from outside the EU and Switzerland have hurt its standing relative to other countries with similar opportunities (OECD, 2023e).
Finland offers a field guide for navigating the visa process for people who wish to study or work in the country. It has clear bifurcations if the applicant is currently residing in Finland or if they are applying from outside the country. There are additional channels for Nordic citizens, Ukrainian citizens, asylum seekers, EU citizens, United Kingdom citizens, people seeking temporary or permanent work or study status, and for applicants requiring a fast track for any of the visa applications (Finnish Immigration Service, n.d.a). Fast-track visas are available for certain high-skilled specialists, EU Blue Card holders, intra-corporate transfers, top or middle management of a company in Finland, start-up entrepreneurs, and the immediate family members of those in the aforementioned categories (Finnish Immigration Service, n.d.b).
To take advantage of its national reputation, build a more inclusive workforce, and counteract brain drain, Finland announced the Talent Boost program in November 2023. The Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment and the Ministry of Education and Culture run the program, which targets international workers and students alike (Salonen and Lehto, n.d.). While Finland will seek to fill its skilled worker shortage using EU regional labor, the program aims to broaden the attractiveness of Finnish careers and schooling to audiences beyond the bloc. Although Finland is still rolling out the program, it will include a more synchronized approach to retaining foreign talent using a wider array of government resources (Finnish Government, 2023).
France
French programs for attracting students and professionals from abroad are long standing and have shown success. Income potential in France remained a concern in the OECD report across all categories of students and workers. Regardless, French learning institutions are well renowned and offer the option for work-during-study visas. Between the 2019 and 2023 OECD reports, France had the greatest rank drop in its attractiveness rank for students (OECD, 2023e). However, despite the OECD ranking reduction, data have shown that the volume of international students has increased, driven by more EU students (Erudera, 2022). In addition to concerns about income potential, the drop in ITA ranking reflects inclusivity and quality of life concerns that can be affected by external variables. France leverages EU policies such as the EU Blue Card and offers its own programs.
Since 1999, the Eiffel Excellence Scholarship has specifically supported foreign students aiming to complete higher-level degree programs in France (Campus France, 2024). The associated visa lasts the duration of the applicant’s scholarship. There are allowances for gap years, flexibility to the student’s learning plan, and a buffer year following graduation before the applicant would need to either obtain a new visa or leave France. The Eiffel program does not include tuition support (Campus France, 2023b).
Worker programs such as one that offers visas for Young Innovative Companies (JEI), which became available starting in 2004, target highly skilled minds seeking to build or attract new business to France (République Française, 2024b). The government offers classifications for new companies and universities that make substantial investments in research and development. France has a subsection of its Talent Passport that facilitates professionals and students that support JEIs (République Française, 2023b).
In 2017, France initiated its Talent Passport, a broad program supporting non-Europeans working for more than 3 months in France (République Française, 2024a). The program is reserved for high-skilled workers, researchers, entrepreneurs, artists, investors, and celebrities. While a VLS-TS residency permit10 covers these categories for stays in France for less than 1 year, applicants that are covered by the Talent Passport can apply if their stay is for 1 year or more. Support mechanisms exist within the
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10 The VLS-TS (visa de long séjour valant titre de séjour) is a long-stay visa equivalent to a residence permit that allows the holder to enter France and live in the country for between 3 and 12 months without applying for a separate residence permit.
program for family members of the applicant and clear guidance on pricing for each variation and applicant pipeline is provided.
The French Tech Visa also started in 2017 and is catered specifically to supporting the information technology sector by facilitating the immigration of professionals, investors, and business leaders in the tech sector (République Française, 2023a). The visa has a longer time horizon of 4 years, offers permissions for immediate family members, and has an indefinite renewal timeline.
Germany
Between the 2019 and 2023 OECD reports, Germany had a modest attractiveness ranking increase for its student programs but saw a drop in rankings for entrepreneurs and workers (OECD, 2023e). Germany ranked eighth globally in innovation in 2023 but experienced a 0.3 percent drop in GDP by the end of 2023 (DESTATIS, 2024; Dutta et al., 2023). This coincides with a foreign workforce that has nearly doubled since 2017 in Germany (DESTATIS, 2023). Despite this influx, 44 percent of businesses in Germany complain of not having enough skilled workers, a figure that has doubled since 2022 (Carter, 2022b). Germany remains an economic and industry leader in the EU bloc and maintains several bilateral and global programs to support its workforce and business environment as worker shortages persist. It has been working to expand its offerings for international talent, branching out to offer more direct support for students and workers through bilateral agreements and by transitioning to an applicant-oriented points-based system for immigration.
The German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) is the primary hub for international student talent to begin or continue their studies in Germany. DAAD has resources for foreigners to find appropriate scholarships (DAAD, n.d.a), working while studying (DAAD, n.d.c), and visa requirements by country (DAAD, n.d.b). For certain professions and those conducting advanced research, there are additional resources for acclimating to the tax environment, taking full advantage of social benefits, extended family support, and special statuses for refugees and vulnerable groups (German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, n.d.).
The Alexander von Humboldt Foundation augments government efforts with more than 26 programs facilitating academic, cultural, and innovative exchange (Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, n.d.). Humboldt primarily supports international professionals and students
to conduct research in Germany for a variety of fields, with resettlement support and a diversity of program offerings. The research fellowships under the Foundation’s programming are buttressed by Germany’s national EURAXESS centers for sourcing funding and employment opportunities among other tools (EURAXESS, n.d.a).
For international workers, the job seeker visa was initiated in 2012, and it specifically aims to help professionals outside of the EU work in Germany (German Federal Foreign Office, n.d.). With a low barrier to obtain, the visa can last for 6 months, allowing applicants to spend time networking and interviewing for a job that would meet the requirements for longer-term residency.
Beyond open programs such as the job seeker visa, Germany has begun building bilateral agreements with certain countries to augment their workforce streams. In 2022, Germany signed its first Migration and Mobility Agreement with India, which facilitates mobility for students and trainees, cultural professionals, journalists, academics, and skilled workers between the two countries (German Federal Ministry of the Interior and Community, 2022). The objective of the agreement was to encourage talent in the information technology sector to open positions in Germany, but the benefits of such an agreement can extend to other sectors as well.
In 2022, Germany began rolling out a new immigration system, including its Chancenkarte, or Opportunity Card, which operates in a similar fashion to the U.S. Green Card (Carter, 2022a). This new points-based immigration system allows workers to arrive without a job and search when in Germany and creates easier pathways to apply for German citizenship (Chancenkarte Deutschland, n.d.). To obtain an Opportunity Card, applicants must prove German language proficiency or prior residency, have obtained a higher education degree, have at least 3 years of working experience, and be younger than 35. Chancenkarte became available starting in June 2024.
Italy
Italy ranks 26th in the top 50 high-income economies for innovation but had a 3.8 percent GDP growth in 2022 and a 1.2 percent growth rate in 2023 (Dutta et al., 2023; OECD, 2023b). Between the two OECD reports, Italy’s rankings of its talent programs were stagnant when it came to student talent but had modest increases among worker and entrepreneur talent, driven by future prospects metrics and quality of opportunities in the Italian economy (OECD, 2023b).
The General Directorate of Immigration and Integration Policies, under the Ministry of Labor and Social Policies, manages policies on foreign workers (Italian Ministry of Labor and Social Policies, 2024a). The country offers foreign workers, who represent 8 percent of the population (EURES, 2023), access to national benefits including their National Health Service and social security (Reuters, 2023). However, the non-EU foreign labor participation rate stagnated in recent years (Italian Ministry of Labor and Social Policies, 2024b).
The government offers six types of student visas for various target audiences: students of Italian universities, students attending a single course, postgraduates, participants of exchange or mobility programs, traineeships and apprenticeships, and vocational training (Italian Foreign Ministry, 2024b). In addition to EU worker and student programs, the government offers a menu of scholarships for foreign students and resources for connecting with private scholarships (Italian Foreign Ministry, 2024a). Separately, the Eduitalia association is a network of higher education institutions that collectively provide resources to international students staying in Italy (Eduitalia, n.d.).
For working professionals, Italy offers the Startup Visa Program to support young entrepreneurs from outside the EU (Italian Foreign & Economic Ministries, n.d.). The program aims to incentivize new business creation in Italy, driven by a 2016 law that improved the environment for new businesses in the country (Italian Ministry of Economic Development, 2016). While Italy has experienced irregular human flows in recent years, its global talent policies reflect a need to fill key positions across many sectors of the economy that remain unfilled. Features in its visa programs include assistance that allows an applicant’s nuclear families to move with them. However, few programs have been authorized recently that capture post-COVID-19 global talent flow trends.
Sweden
In the 2023 OECD report, Sweden’s policies and conditions for attracting global talent were in the top 25 percent compared with other developed states, driven by the country’s rich skills environment, inclusiveness, and quality of life (OECD, 2023e). Other drivers included opportunities and prospects and family support. Sweden’s education system is considered the best in the world, followed by Finland and Denmark (U.S. News & World Report, n.d.). The foreign-born population in Sweden has
steadily increased, reaching 2.83 million people in 2022 (Dyvik, 2023), and international students in Sweden increased by 19 percent in 2023, with Germany, China, and France representing the largest cohorts (Erudera, 2023a). Increased demand for workers and researchers in Sweden has prompted the government to begin simplifying some of its visa procedures (Erudera, 2023b).
Swedish work permits encompass a wide array of applications and have special rules for applicant professional sector and other conditions (Swedish Migration Agency, 2023b). In most cases, employment offers are required before visa applications. Special pathways are available for those with EU Blue Card status, seasonal workers, athletes, and other roles (Swedish Migration Agency, 2022). Additionally, those seeking to fill a position from the regularly updated list of professions experiencing a shortage have a custom application process (Swedish Migration Agency, 2023c). Refugees and temporary remote workers also have subsections under the same worker permit authorization mechanism (Swedish Migration Agency, 2023a, 2024).
Students seeking to study in Sweden have access to a unified application portal for undergraduate and graduate programs (Swedish Council for Higher Education, n.d.). While a menu of scholarships can support a student’s experience, most citizens outside the EU/European Economic Area bloc must pay for tuition and living expenses (Pop, 2022).
Despite high tax rates and conventions for employee benefits in Sweden, startups have a high success rate and show fast growth (Semuels, 2017). The government offers a resource portal for immigrant entrepreneurs that includes hiring tools, permit guidance, tax assistance, start-up incubator networks, and other tools (Swedish Institute, 2023). However, foreigners wanting to start or buy a business in Sweden must prove English or Swedish proficiency, illustrate sufficient starting capital, demonstrate a strong-enough network in Sweden, and possess a compelling curriculum vitae supporting an application (Swedish Migration Agency, 2023d).
Five Eyes Countries
Australia
Australia has served as a hub for international students and workers within the East Asia and Pacific region and beyond. Like many countries, the critical role of migrant labor in Australia’s economy became starkly apparent during the COVID-19 pandemic for low-wage and high-skilled
workers alike. As travel restrictions eased in 2022, a wave of new workers and students filled many of the gaps. Nevertheless, a late 2023 government review of industries that require more workers stated that “Technicians and Trade Workers, and Professional occupations (health, engineering, information communication technology and science roles) have the highest shortages, particularly in regional and remote areas,” highlighting just some sectors affected by what the government assesses to be a worker shortage in 36 percent of Australia’s occupations (Jobs and Skills Australia, 2023).
The surge in asylum claims and immigration has resulted in some backlash, causing the Labor government to backtrack on expanding migration incentives, reducing the maximum number of admitted migrants for 2024, and promising to revise and restrict some post-COVID-19 policies (Australian Department of Home Affairs, 2024a; Karp, 2023). Despite the ongoing domestic debate, the establishment and strengthening of research and professional pathways with regional partners will play an important role as worker shortages persist and geopolitical tensions rise (Universities Australia, 2023).
Among recent changes, the Endeavour Leadership Program (ELP), which had been in place since 2003 to great effect, was discontinued in 2023. ELP was available only to specific countries through a competitive selection process, and support included extensive financial assistance. ELP had served both Australian and international academics in a two-way exchange that buttressed research in a variety of fields (Barker, 2019).
International student programs in Australia include the Research Training Program (RTP), which replaced the Australian Postgraduate Award, or APA; International Postgraduate Research Scholarship, or IPRS; and the Research Training Scheme, or RTS, programs in 2017 (Australian Department of Education, 2024). The RTP program offers financial support to domestic and foreign individuals for between 2 and 8 years depending on the scope of academic activities of the applicant. Australia’s Technical and Vocational Education Training (TVET) program offers a blend of student and professional support for foreign citizens interested in technical and low-wage work looking to start a career in Australia. Training through TVET is mostly implemented through Australia’s Technical and Further Education, or TAFE, institutes and ranges in duration from 4 to 36 months (Study Australia, n.d.).
Australian incentives for workers are often demand-driven and focus on staff shortages experienced by Australia. Visas are offered regionally within Australia, by the duration of stay, and most critically by an applicant’s
professional specialization that meets a worker shortage need (Australian Department of Home Affairs, 2024b, 2024d). Some skilled worker visas that allow for permanent residency require an invitation from the Australian government to apply (Australian Department of Home Affairs, 2024c). The Global Talent Program, which began in 2019, offers professionals who meet minimum income and specialization requirements a permanent visa to live and work in Australia with the aim of boosting innovation within the economy (Australian Department of Home Affairs, 2024e). Lastly, the Skilled Migration Program operates in tandem with the Global Talent Program to support worker shortages and retain talent (Australian Department of Home Affairs, 2023). Between the 2019 and 2023 OECD reports, Australia had a modest ranking increase in the attractiveness of its student programs but experienced a drop in ranking for its foreign worker and entrepreneur programs. For entrepreneurs in particular, rankings were hurt by Australia’s income and taxation environment (OECD, 2023e).
Canada
Canada has positioned itself as a welcoming environment for workers, entrepreneurs, and students alike, with long-standing policies that have shown success as well as new initiatives that seek to capitalize on new talent pools. In the OECD report, Canada ranked highly in its attractiveness for immigrant entrepreneurs and workers but lower in attractiveness for university students because of visa policies and other limitations imposed by the government in recent years (OECD, 2023e). Many of the latest initiatives supporting foreign workers in Canada have been aimed at supporting workforce needs for Canadian companies that have had difficulty filling open positions. In addition, Canadian programs have aimed to establish an edge for Canadian employers among talent pools that receive less targeted attention.
Canada initiated its Global Talent Stream (GTS) program in 2017 to provide an accelerated timeline for worker authorization in Canada in as little as 2 weeks (Singer, 2022). GTS is a demand-driven subsidiary initiative of the Temporary Foreign Worker Program, which is Canada’s overarching legislation supporting foreign workers (Cohen Immigration Law, 2022). GTS is available for 17-plus professional specializations and for professionals seeking to work for any one of 45 shortlisted employers (Cohen Immigration Law, 2023). Canada updates the list of target employers and specializations annually (Government of Canada, 2024d). Quebec maintains some unique modifiers for this program, with any worker applying for work authorization
through GTS receiving the same right to health care, safety, and wage expectations as Canadian nationals (Government of Canada, 2024d).
In 2015, Canada started the Express Entry Program, which offers a points-based working opportunity for foreign individuals. This program supports those with prior Canadian work experience, workers with specific academic and language experience, and specific skilled trades. Visas issued under this initiative boast a processing time for no more than 6 months and serve as a complement to region-level programs (Government of Canada, 2024b).
Announced in June 2023, Canada’s Tech Talent Strategy is another program that aims to fill gaps in Canada’s workforce—particularly for entrepreneurs and those in the information technology space—and facilitate permanent residency for high-skilled professionals (Allibhai et al., 2023). The program takes aim at foreign workers with H1-B visas living in the United States, with streamlined applications for those with visa statuses in other countries.
In 2010, Canada created the Canada Research Chairs Program (CRCP) to support the country’s research and development (R&D) efforts with an annual budget of over $300 million (Government of Canada, 2022). This academic incentive program targets students and thought leaders in engineering and the natural sciences, health sciences, humanities, and social sciences. The funding allocation and prioritization for Chairs is updated every 5 years for placements in Canadian institutions. Funding comes from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (Government of Canada, 2022). CRCP allows for the establishment of up to 2,285 Chairs, with 2,148 awarded via regular allocation and 137 awarded via special allocation (Government of Canada, 2021).11 As of March 2024, there were 2,010 active participants in the CRCP program from 78 different Canadian universities (Government of Canada, 2024c; Zweig, 2024).
The number of Chairs allocated to a specific Canadian university is proportional to the amount of research expenditures from the three Canadian
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11 Institutions can be eligible to receive Chairs via both regular and special allocation, and this is indeed the case at some Canadian universities. To receive Chairs via special allocation, an institution must receive more than $100,000 CAD of funding from Canada’s three research funding agencies over 3 years, must receive 1 percent or less of the total funding paid out by the three agencies, and have fewer than 11 Chairs via regular allocation.
federal granting agencies12 at the institution during the 3 years prior to the year of allocation. Approximately two-thirds of CRCP recipients hail from members of the U15 Group of Canadian Research Universities (U15).13 The University of Toronto, University of British Columbia, McGill University, University of Alberta, and Université de Montréal, all U15 member institutions, host the highest number of Chairs. Furthermore, Chairs are allocated by disciplinary area, with 837 Chairs (39 percent) designated for research in natural sciences and engineering, 837 Chairs (39 percent) designated for research in health sciences, and 474 Chairs (22 percent) designated for research in social sciences and humanities (Government of Canada, 2021). As shown in Table 5-1, the majority of Chair recipients are Canadians already living and working in Canada.
CRCP uses a two-tier approach. Tier 1 Chairs last 7 years and are renewable one time and twice in exceptional circumstances (Government of Canada, 2022). These Chairs are full or associate professors who are broadly acknowledged as outstanding, world-class researchers. A Canadian institution hosting a Tier 1 Chair receives $200,000 CAD ($145,208 USD in 2024)14 annually. Tier 2 Ch airs last 5 years and are renewable one time. These Chairs are associate or assistant professors who are perceived as exceptional emerging researchers with the potential to lead in their discipline. Canadian institutions hosting Tier 2 Chairs receive $100,000 CAD ($72,604 USD in 2024) annually. The funds received for each Chair can add to the Chair’s salary, pay for part of the Chair’s existing salary, or fund research. This split, and how the funds are used, varies by institution.
CRCP has been successful in building research teams led by Chair recipients and scientific infrastructure in Canada. However, the value of the award has diminished over time, as the award amount has not changed since 2000. This has resulted in CRCP funds increasingly being used to cover Chair salaries rather than to fund research and has made it more difficult to recruit and retain Chair recipients from abroad. Many CRCP awards went to researchers already in Canada, with the idea that receipt of such an award would prevent them from seeking opportunities abroad. A 2016 evaluation of the program noted the failure to increase the monetary award “may
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12 The Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council.
13 The U15 Canada is a higher education association of 15 leading research-intensive universities in Canada.
14 USD calculated using an exchange rate of 1 USD = 1.377 CAD as of August 6, 2024. See https://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/convert/?Amount=1&From=USD&To=CAD.
TABLE 5-1 Percentage of Canada Research Chairs Awarded to Canadians Overseas versus Canadians Already in Canada, 2014
| Number | Percentage of Total | |
| Total Number of Canada Research Chairs | 1,743 | 100% |
| Non-Canadian | 151 | 8.7% |
| Canadian | 1,592 | 91.3% |
| Returned from Abroad | 127 | 7.3% |
| Already in Canada | 1,465 | 84.1% |
SOURCE: Zweig, 2024.
present a risk to relevance, and may be linked to some observed challenges to program effectiveness, namely challenges in recruitment and turnover among chairholders from abroad, and an increase in Chair vacancies” (Goss Gilroy Inc., 2016).
Canada has maintained programs for students, entrepreneurs, and professionals for many years that have positioned it well to attract talent from around the world, although the Canadian government decided not to raise the cap on the number of foreign students enrolled at Canadian universities (Basken, 2024; ICEF Monitor, 2024b). Canada remains one of the most competitive countries in drawing talent from abroad according to a variety of metrics (Gray, 2018; IIE, 2022a). It also continues to innovate with new programs like the Tech Talent Strategy.
New Zealand
In the 2023 OECD report, New Zealand ranked in the top 25 percent in ITA scores for foreign workers and entrepreneurs, driven by strong opportunities, family environments, inclusivity, and quality of life. The country had weaker ratings for its foreign student programs, but those too had strong ratings for inclusivity, opportunities, and skills environment. While New Zealand has implemented more capital requirements for immigrant entrepreneurs, it still is among the top five most attractive countries for both entrepreneurs and skilled workers (OECD, 2023e). Since the country has opened up after COVID-19 shutdowns, immigration has hit an all-time high at a time when Kiwi employers have had difficulty filling open positions with an already low unemployment rate of under 4 percent (Perry, 2023).
The movement of New Zealanders to Australia in search of better wages has exacerbated the country’s skilled worker shortage (Perry, 2023). Based on an existing bilateral agreement, citizens of New Zealand and Australia can travel, live, and work in either country without a visa or other permits, with some exceptions (New Zealand Government, 2020).
New Zealand has several visas for international entrepreneurs and workers, as well as supporting visas for their families (New Zealand MBIE, n.d.m). To address worker shortages in the country, the government maintains and regularly updates its Green List, a roster currently listing 193 roles prioritized by immigration officials. Professionals that match the qualifications of one or more of the roles in the Green List can have residency status either immediately or after no longer than 2 years of working in New Zealand (New Zealand MBIE, n.d.f). Those who choose to work in New Zealand are offered the same rights as citizens, including a requirement of written labor contracts, minimum wage, personal time off minimums, and more (New Zealand MBIE, n.d.g).
Programs under which international workers can apply for residency include catered visas for professionals in health care, transportation, arts and entertainment, fishing, religious, culinary, and sports sectors (New Zealand MBIE, n.d.o). There are also 55 country-specific short- and long-term working status programs available. Among the programs attracting workers to New Zealand, the Skilled Migrant Category Resident visa is a points-based program that offers indefinite stay to professionals with a standing job offer in the country (New Zealand MBIE, n.d.j). The Work Exchange Scheme visa is a short turnaround visa that lasts 1 year and is intended for temporary stints in New Zealand, though it has a 1,000-person quota per year (New Zealand MBIE, n.d.p). Another program is the Talent Work visa, which has no cap and has a processing time of around 5 weeks (New Zealand MBIE, n.d.l). Applicants under this program can stay and work for up to 2.5 years as they display exceptional talent in a field of art, sport, or culture, after which time, they can apply to stay indefinitely. Lastly, the Pacific Access Category Resident visa is a regional program that has a permanent residency lottery for English-speaking professionals from Kiribati, Tuvalu, Tonga, or Fiji (New Zealand MBIE, n.d.h). New Zealand raised the quota caps for each country in 2023.
Programs specific to entrepreneurs moving to New Zealand include the Entrepreneur Work visa (New Zealand MBIE, n.d.b), which takes 2 years to process and lasts 3 years with the potential to extend indefinitely (New Zealand MBIE, n.d.a). The visa is points-based and is for those who
come to set up or buy a business. Those working in science or the information and communications technology sector have the capital benchmark requirement waived and family support is included. Another program is the Global Impact Work visa (New Zealand MBIE, n.d.e), a 3-year visa for investors accepted by the Edmund Hillary Fellowship that can be extended indefinitely at the end of the Global Impact Work period of performance (New Zealand MBIE, n.d.d).
International students in New Zealand have increased almost 100 percent since COVID-19 restrictions were removed (ICEF Monitor, 2023). The government offers a scholarship and resource database for exchange students (New Zealand Ministry of Education, 2024) as well as visas for the guardians and dependents of students (New Zealand MBIE, n.d.n). Student programs in New Zealand include the Exchange Student visa, for full-time students for up to 4 years, which is processed in 2 weeks and features free tuition and work authorization (New Zealand MBIE, n.d.c). Another is the Pathway Student visa, which lasts for 5 years and is processed in 6 weeks for the completion of three courses under the Pathway program. Tuition and family visas are not included in this program, but work authorization is an integrated feature (New Zealand MBIE, n.d.i). Lastly, the Student and Trainee Work visa is intended to support traineeships in medical, religious, or other included sectors for anywhere between 6 months and 4 years (New Zealand MBIE, n.d.k).
Overall, New Zealand’s diverse visa offerings to foreign talent feature strong citizen-comparable benefits, along with a clear field guide for finding the right visa pathway. While some professions remain understaffed, an ongoing influx of workers to the country will test immigration protocols and present opportunities for growth in a variety of sectors.
The United Kingdom
The United Kingdom offers some of the most attractive programs and opportunities for international students according to the OECD 2023 report, driven in part from the pedigree of its educational institutions, but also its family environment and future prospects (OECD, 2023e). According to the ITA metrics since the last report in 2019, the offerings for international workers and entrepreneurs have also improved in the United Kingdom. This resulted in part from removing skilled worker quota caps for visas and improved prospects for immigrant labor as the global economy has reopened after COVID-19. Between the 2019 and 2023 OECD reports,
the United Kingdom had the greatest ranking increase in workers and a strong increase in both entrepreneurs and students.
For international workers, the High Potential Individual visa is for highly skilled professionals who have earned a degree from an eligible university within the 5 years prior to applying (UK Government, n.d.c). The offering provides immigrants who performed well in their respective academic institutions the opportunity to move to and search for work in the United Kingdom without a standing job offer. The visa lasts for between 2 and 3 years depending on the highest degree of the applicant but cannot be renewed. Continuing to live in the United Kingdom hinges on transferring to another visa category, ideally after having secured stable employment. The visa can extend to the applicant’s nuclear family.
Another UK program is the Global Talent visa, which offers legal residency for up to 5 years for talented workers in science, engineering, medicine, humanities, digital technology, arts, and fashion (UK Government, n.d.a). Global Talent visas require a health care surcharge to have the same benefits as UK citizens, but the program supports families of the applicant as well. The similar Skilled Worker visa is a more expansive work authorization for concentrations less critical to filling skill gaps in the UK economy. Visas are awarded only with a UK job offer in hand and can last for up to 5 years (UK Government, n.d.d).
The standard student visa in the United Kingdom is reserved for applicants who have a standing offer at a UK university, have the proven financial means to afford the costs associated with the degree program, and demonstrate English proficiency (UK Government, n.d.e). Processing takes as little as 3 weeks, and the visa can last between 2 to 5 years with the option of an extension. The United Kingdom offers a post-study work visa for between 2 and 3 years, depending on the degree of the student, and allows for full work authorization but does not give the applicant access to social benefits or state pensions (UK Government, n.d.b).
Other opportunities for international students include the UK Research and Innovation initiative, which provides research and development investments across nine portfolios (UKRI, 2024). The UK Department for Science, Innovation, and Technology is the primary funder for the initiative, which features more than 100 fellowships, grants, and loans. The Chevening Scholarships similarly support a diverse array of concentrations but is exclusively for foreign students completing their master’s degree in the United Kingdom. All expenses are paid, including travel, tuition, and accommodation (Chevening, n.d.). Commonwealth
Scholarships are reserved for citizens of Commonwealth countries pursuing graduate or postgraduate degrees in one of six concentrations (British Council, n.d.). Scholarships include travel, living, and tuition expenses similar to the Chevening program.
Asian Countries
India
India has long been a major contributor to the U.S. STEM workforce, accounting for 29 percent of the foreign-born STEM workers in the United States (American Immigration Council, 2022). However, India now has designs to become a leading science hub for the next generation of researchers, according to Srivari Chandrasekhar, secretary of the Indian Department of Science and Technology (Parishwad, 2023). India surpassed China in 2023 and now ranks first in terms of the number of international students enrolled at U.S. colleges and universities (DHS, 2023a, 2024b).15 India is now doing more to retain its best and brightest and compete with the rest of the world for STEM talent.
India’s academic institutions have struggled to compete for Indian Ph.D. students who would rather go abroad (primarily to the United States) for the research facilities and resources, access to cutting-edge research groups, and career opportunities available overseas. The Indian government has made sporadic and limited efforts to engage its diaspora overseas, with most of these efforts taking the form of funded short-term visiting teaching and research opportunities for overseas researchers (see Table 5-2).
Japan
Japan has traditionally maintained strict visa policies for those seeking semipermanent or permanent work status. However, given the demographic shifts occurring within the country, filling critical roles has become more difficult and has necessitated a shift in its national talent framework. The demographic-centered pressures experienced in Japan offer one of the more extreme examples of how aging populations among postindustrial
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15 As of 2024, the numbers of students from China and India enrolled at U.S. institutions of higher education are very close. Different data sources disagree on whether India actually has surpassed China, with DHS data (DHS, 2023a, 2024b) supporting this argument and IIE OpenDoors 2023 data (IIE, 2023b) still showing China with a slight edge.
TABLE 5-2 Active Opportunities for the Indian STEM Diaspora and Foreign Scholars to Conduct Research and Teach in India
| Visiting Advanced Joint Research Faculty Scheme (VAJRA) | Global Initiative for Academic Networks (GIAN) | VaishvikBharatiya Vaigyanik Fellowship (VAIBHAV) | Ramanujan Fellowship | |
| Objective | Serve as adjunct/visiting faculty at public Indian research institutions and contribute to R&D | Augment India’s existing academic resources, accelerate the pace of quality reform, and elevate India’s S&T enterprise | Collaborate and network with Indian institutions to foster a network of research programs aligned with India’s priorities | Bring back scientists and engineers from abroad to take up positions in India |
| Activities | Teaching, Research | Teaching, Research | Research | Research |
| Required Degree | Ph.D., M.S. in engineering or technology, M.D. | |||
| Contract Duration | 1 to 3 months; adjunct position appointment is for 1 year | 1 to 2 weeks (short courses) | 1 week to 2 months per year for up to 3 years | 5 years |
| Target Audience | Overseas scientists, faculty, and R&D professionals including Non-Resident Indians (NRIs), Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs), and Overseas Citizens of India (OCIs) | International scientists and entrepreneurs | Indian STEM diaspora | Scientists and engineers working abroad, with a proven research publication track record, and under 40 years of age |
| Remuneration | $15,000 USD stipend for first month | $8,000 USD for 12 to 14 hours of contact | Rs. 1,35,000 per montha ($1,608 USD per month) |
|
| $10,000 USD stipend for following 1 or 2 months | Up to $12,000 USD for 20 to 28 hours of contact | Rs. 7.00 lakhb research grant per year ($8,339 USD per year) |
||
| Rs. 60,000 overhead per year ($715 USD per year) |
a USD calculated using an exchange rate of 1 USD = 83.944 INR as of August 6, 2024. See https://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/convert/?Amount=1&From=USD&To=INR.
b One lakh is equal to 100,000 in the Indian numbering system.
SOURCE: Government of India Department of Science and Technology, VAJRA, n.d.
economies are making it harder to fill entry- and mid-level positions across different sectors (Statista, 2023).
With a low unemployment rate, Japan’s need for more plentiful talent has had clear national security implications as workforce availability affects national service. For instance, the Japan Self-Defense Forces have struggled to maintain sufficient recruitment numbers and has expanded efforts to attract more women, mid-career professionals, and other groups that are less represented in its ranks (Rich and Hida, 2023).
Japan has offered a plethora of programs for international students, entrepreneurs, and professionals. Between the 2019 and 2023 OECD global talent reports, Japan’s International Trade Administration showed the highest jump in attractiveness ranking for students. However, ratings highlighted challenges in the family environment of international workers (OECD, 2023d). Japan’s Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT, or Monbukagakusho) program, operating since 1954, offers specific assistance to higher education students, students from the surrounding East Asian region, and support for students seeking employment in Japan during their studies (Japanese MEXT, n.d.). The Japan Student Services Organization offers support infrastructure oriented around the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal for international students in Japan and has been in place since 2004 (JASSO, n.d.). The Japan Exchange and Teaching Program, founded in 1987, engages young professionals from around the world to teach language and other skill sets in Japan, serving both domestic civil service needs and international relations building (Japan Exchange and Teaching Programme, n.d.). Box 5-2 describes the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology (OIST), a globally focused Japanese research university offering a Ph.D. program in science and engineering, competitive research internships, and support for international students and researchers.
In recent attempts to attract more students, entrepreneurs, and professionals from abroad, Japan instituted the J-Skip visa in April 2023 (Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2023a; NEI Global Relocation, 2023). The J-Skip visa targets highly skilled professionals and has three subcategories under which individuals can apply. The (i)(a) category is for people with a master’s degree or 10 years of experience and who have a baseline income of at least 20 million JPY ($137,913 USD in 2024).16 The (i)(b) category
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16 USD calculated using an exchange rate of 1 USD = 145.019 JPY as of August 6, 2024. See https://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/convert/?Amount=1&From=USD&To=JPY.
BOX 5-2
The Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology
The Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology (OIST) was founded by the Japanese governmenta in 2011 to “contribute to science and technology worldwide, attract leading researchers from Japan and around the world to conduct high-quality research, advance the development of a world-class research hub, and nucleate a knowledge cluster that will catalyze technology transfer and industrial innovation” (OIST, n.d.a). The graduate school offers one course of study, a 5-year Ph.D. in science and engineering, and all education and research is conducted in English (OIST, 2024). OIST has more than 1,100 employees hailing from 69 different countries and territories (OIST, 2024). Sixty-four percent of OIST faculty and 80 percent of OIST Ph.D. students are from abroad (OIST, 2024).
In addition to this, OIST offers education and research opportunities in science, technology, engineering, and medicine to foreign students through its Research Internship program. This is a short-term opportunity, typically 2 to 6 months, during which participants contribute to the research activities of OIST under the guidance of a professor (OIST, n.d.c, n.d.d). The program is highly competitive and awards placements twice a year to students in the last 2 years of their bachelor’s degree, students pursuing a master’s degree, and students interested in joining OIST’s doctoral program (OIST, n.d.b.). The program provides a nontaxable internship allowance of 2,400 JPY ($17 USD in 2024)b per working day, a direct round-trip air travel ticket, an OIST shuttle bus pass, and a furnished apartment on or off campus (OIST, n.d.d). OIST also assists with “visa acquisition, insurance procedures, and local registration” for students but not for accompanying family members (OIST, n.d.d).
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a While OIST receives funds from the Japanese government, it is a private university (specifically, a Special Private School Corporation) (OIST, n.d.a).
b USD calculated using an exchange rate of 1 USD = 145.019 JPY as of August 6, 2024. See https://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/convert/?Amount=1&From=USD&To=JPY.
is for people pursuing advanced academic research activities or an advanced specialized or technical activity. The (i)(c) category is for people with 5 or more years of experience in business management with annual income of 40 million JPY ($275,867 USD in 2024) or more.
The J-Find visa, also instituted in April 2023, is for recent graduates of highly ranked universities (Japan uses QS World University Rankings, Times Higher Education World University Rankings, and Shanghai Ranking’s Academic Ranking of World Universities to filter qualified candidates) to begin their careers or start a business in Japan (Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2023b; NEI Global Relocation, 2023). The program includes a 2-year visa for job hunting and preparation for launching a company or venture. The J-Find visa also allows applicants to bring their dependents, such as spouses and children. J-Find applicants must provide proof of at least 200,000 JPY ($1,379 USD in 2024) in savings for living expenses when applying.
Further supporting this effort to build a talent pipeline, Japan’s Council for the Future of Education Creation announced in 2023 that it aimed to further “internationalize” higher education and attract more than 400,000 foreign students from overseas institutions and encourage them to work in Japan after they graduate (Exum, 2023; NEI Global Relocation, 2023). Separately, the Japan International Cooperation Agency, or JICA, offers support specifically for students in developing countries to study in Japan in a wide variety of fields (Japan International Cooperation Center, n.d.).
Moreover, Japan introduced a new digital nomad program and began issuing such visas on April 1, 2024 (Japan Immigration Services Agency, 2024; Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2024; Leasca, 2024; Symons, 2024). The program, which seeks to boost tourism as the country continues to reopen post-COVID-19, is also a measure to attract entrepreneurs and skilled talent. While the duration of a nomad visa is for only 6 months, the program matches those of other countries, such as New Zealand, that have been effective at drawing from talent pools that may not have a network in the country. There is a salary minimum, and applicants receive priority if they serve key roles, such as in information technology. Currently, 49 countries are included in the program. While the nomad visa program does not guarantee long-term residency, it may serve as a gateway visa that could encourage talent to stay.
Japan’s latest policy initiatives have expanded the pool from which Japanese universities and companies will be able to attract talent, but
baseline thresholds remain, restricting which kinds of individuals are able to benefit from these policies. Japan has made it a clear priority to render its economy and universities attractive to individuals from both developing and developed nations.
Singapore
While not highlighted in the OECD report, Singapore saw a 10 percent rise in foreign student enrollment in 2022 compared with 2021 (Business Times, 2022). Foreign workers in Singapore also increased by 4 percent from 2019 to 2023 (Singapore Ministry of Manpower, 2024). The country relies heavily on their contribution, with foreigners accounting for 36 percent of its workforce (Hao, 2023). Singapore remains a beacon of innovation and trade in the Southeast Asian region, with an economy that incentivizes foreign investment in its manufacturing and services industries in particular. R&D in Singapore is also highly active, driven in part by accommodating tax incentives and other policies.
While Singapore remains a global city, restrictions in 2020 saw a reduction in foreign worker quota limits (Hao, 2023). However, new initiatives seek to improve the attractiveness of Singapore’s economy to students, entrepreneurs, and workers alike, led by the Singapore Economic Development Board. Singapore offers a variety of work and study programs and support for key sector studies. The government offers the Employment Pass for professionals, the S Pass for mid-skilled workers, the Work Permit for lower-skilled workers, the EntrePass for venture-backed business starters, and the ONE Pass for filling key openings in the country (Singapore Economic Development Board, 2024).
Programs incentivizing foreign scholars to study in Singapore include the Singapore International Graduate Award, or SINGA, which caters specifically to postgraduate work and research (Singapore A*STAR, 2024), the Student Pass, which offers umbrella coverage for several academic programs (Singapore Immigration and Checkpoints Authority, 2024), and various scholarships, including the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Scholarship, offering support for ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) regional students on a cyclical basis (Singapore Ministry of Education, 2024).
South Korea
South Korea ranked in the top 10 countries in the Global Innovation Index in 2023 (WIPO, 2023c), and its GDP grew at a rate of 2.6 percent in 2022 (World Bank, 2022). However, the OECD noted the restrictiveness of Korea’s immigration policy keeps it from attracting more talent. Between the 2019 and 2023 OECD reports, South Korea had a slight ranking drop in attractiveness to entrepreneurs and workers but showed a spike in ratings among foreign students (OECD, 2023e).
South Korea aims to increase the international student population in the country by 300,000 students by 2027 (Jung, 2023). Included in the government’s offerings for foreign students, South Korea runs the Global Korea Scholarship (GKS) program, which features extensive financial support for international students for different degree programs (GKS Scholarship, 2024). GKS is limited to applicants from certain countries, academic performance, and age. The D-2 visa is the general visa for full-time or exchange programs and can be processed in a matter of days (Embassy of the Republic of Korea, 2023).
The government sees foreign workers as an important means by which it can grow its economy aggressively in the face of falling birth rates (Borowiec, 2023). The Employment Permit System in South Korea aims to address worker shortages in different industries and is reactive to domestic economic conditions. Started in 2004, the program has serviced tens of thousands of workers on temporary authorizations of up to 5 years (Global Skills Partnerships, n.d.). Other visa initiatives include the E-7, F-5, and G-1 visas for STEM, permanent worker residency, and entrepreneurs, respectively (Republic of Korea Ministry of Justice, 2024). The South Korean government further relaxed visa requirements and expanded the scope of visas for students and researchers in July 2024, with the intent of attracting more talent from overseas (Jeung, 2024).
LESSONS FOR THE UNITED STATES
Beyond the program availability of different countries and the method by which their policies are evaluated, global talent trends can also be assessed by measuring human flows and identifying where people choose to study and work the most. Based on data from the Institute of International Education, six countries—the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, France, Australia, and Russia—hosted half the world’s
international students (IIE, 2022a). In 2023, the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom, and Singapore were the countries with the greatest opportunities and potential for startups and entrepreneurs (Enginsoy, 2023). Among workers, the United States had more foreign-born residents in 2020 than the next five highest immigrant hosting countries combined (Wisevoter, n.d.). While several of the country profiles above note the effect of COVID-19 and the subsequent policy reaction to the pandemic’s workforce strains, demographic shifts in postindustrial states will continue to place pressure on the relative success of talent attraction policies of different states (Indeed and Glassdoor, 2023).
The push and pull factors behind these trends draw on political, social, and financial pressures. Across many of the countries analyzed in this section, and according to the rating approach of the OECD report, the permissiveness of visa policies is the first determining factor in how a country’s institutions can benefit readily from international talent. However, nations need to pair accessible and permissive visa policies with actions that address transition costs for international students, workers, and entrepreneurs. Tuition expenses or other relocation costs can dilute the prospective benefits of a new career or academic program. Countries that have differentiated themselves and performed better compared with their peers have illustrated flexibility to change and update their visa policies and talent recruitment and retention programs in response to national needs while accounting for domestic and international conditions. Perhaps this is the most important lesson for the United States following this global survey.
What factors into a country’s attractiveness to talent besides national policies?17 Despite being harder to quantify, social pressures and national reputations are another area that affects global talent flows. For instance, gun violence in the United States is having an increasing effect on how international students evaluate the appeal of going to a U.S. university (Knox, 2023). When balancing options in countries competing for the same cream of the crop, systemic issues tie back to how welcoming and safe a country is, or is perceived to be, and can make the difference in an applicant’s decision process (Obst and Forster, 2022). Despite issues about hospitableness and safety potentially driving talent away, the United States still enjoys a strong reputation as an academic and business leader globally for now. U.S. favorability generally
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17 The Economist notes that “[m]any things that make a country attractive are beyond a government’s control,” but “there are plenty of things governments can do to make their countries more appealing to foreign talent” (The Economist, 2024b).
remains high, and it continues to top many metrics for students and workers (Wike et al., 2022).
Geopolitics are also relevant to the discussion on how talent flow patterns will evolve. Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, China’s posture regarding Taiwan and the Western Pacific, and the reignition of regional violence in the Middle East bring to the fore East-West tensions that have been building for decades. This has drawn into question how allies and rivals should share or curtail workforce development and economic growth. While at the individual level, a worker or student may be more motivated by the affordability or opportunity promise of one talent program over another, national policies are being reconsidered and reshaped through the lens of state competition.
Nationalism and xenophobia also affect international human flows. Today, the narrative that foreign workers and immigration more broadly are driving up housing costs has become a common theme across many countries, including Canada, Australia, and the United States (Condie, 2023; Sanchis-Guarner, 2023; Thanthong-Knight et al., 2024).
While improving the resources and policies for international talent at the national level can sharpen U.S. competitiveness relative to other countries, state governments and the private sector can also play a role in separating the United States from the crowd and in creating a more coherent talent-sourcing ecosystem. Regardless of the federal or state policy actions taken or not taken as a result of this study, some questions remain for decision-makers when considering the effects of attracting global talent. What are the short- and long-term implications of siphoning high-skilled talent from other countries, especially among developing nations? Should attracting global talent be seen as an equal exchange or as a zero-sum game? The United States is well positioned to retain its standing as a leading destination for workers, students, and entrepreneurs from around the world. How the United States maintains and leverages this status will likely have ripple effects well beyond its borders.
