Carbon Utilization Infrastructure, Markets, and Research and Development: A Final Report (2024)
Chapter: Appendix I: Additional Information on Markets for CO2 Utilization
I
Additional Information on Markets for CO2 Utilization
Tables I-1 and I-2 provide context about market volumes for global chemical production, and for alternative carbon feedstocks that compete with CO2. To better understand the current chemical industry, Table I-1 describes the major fossil-derived chemical products, excluding fuels, by global volume in 2007, and their production methods. Although the data are from 2007, they describe a baseline of fossil chemical production, which in the future will need to evolve into an industry producing a related-but-not-identical suite of products, with sustainable carbon feedstocks, and likely at larger volume overall, with projected increases in demand for chemicals production.
Table I-2 contains information on availability, conversion technologies, applications and markets, and barriers to adoption for alternative carbon feedstocks that represent competitors to CO2 feedstocks. Issues associated with feedstock availability and suitability are discussed in Section 2.3.3 of this report.
TABLE I-1 Highest-Volume Products of the Chemical Industry, Global Product Volumes, and Global Fossil Production Method Share as of 2007
| Chemical | Product Volume, Global (ktonne/year) | Fossil Production Method Share, Global, 2007 |
|---|---|---|
| Ammoniaa | 134,330 | Steam reforming of natural gas for hydrogen production, 83% Partial oxidation of oil for hydrogen production, 9% Partial oxidation of coal for hydrogen production, 9% |
| Urea | 118,436 | Reaction of ammonia with CO2, 100% |
| Ethylene | 91,000 | Steam cracking of naphtha, 51% Steam cracking of gas oil, 7% Steam cracking of propane, 21% Steam cracking of ethane, 21% |
| Chlorinea | 44,084 | Electrolysis of sodium chloride (diaphragm), 60% Electrolysis of sodium chloride (mercury cathode), 20% Electrolysis of sodium chloride (membrane), 20% |
| Polyethylene | 40,856 | Addition polymerization of ethylene, 100% |
| Benzene from pyrolysis-gasoline (aromatics) | 30,200 | Benzene separation from pyrolysis-gasoline, 39% |
| Benzene from toluene (aromatics) | 30,200 | Hydrodealkylation of toluene from pyrolysis-gasoline, 5% |
| Polyethylene terephthalate | 29,000 | Esterification of terephthalic acid with ethylene glycol, 100% |
| Methanol | 27,900 | Steam reforming of natural gas, 88% Partial oxidation of residues, 9% Partial oxidation of coal, 3% |
| Polypropylene | 27,833 | Addition polymerization of propylene, 100% |
| Vinylchloride | 26,746 | Integrated chlorination and oxychlorination of ethylene, 100% |
| Polyvinylchloride | 25,398 | Addition polymerization of vinylchloride, 100% |
| Methyl tert-butyl ether | 20,867 | Reaction of isobutene and methanol, 100% |
| Ethylbenzene | 20,351 | Alkylation of benzene, 100% |
| Styrene | 20,067 | Dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene, 85% |
| Terephthalic acid | 17,000 | Oxidation of p-xylene, 100% |
| p-xylene from reformate (aromatics) | 16,000 | p-xylene from C8 aromatics cut, 100% |
| Ethylene oxide | 13,410 | Oxidation of ethylene, 100% |
| Polystyrene | 13,244 | Addition polymerization of styrene, 100% |
| Ethylene glycol | 12,200 | Hydration of ethylene oxide, 100% |
| Cumene | 9631 | Alkylation of propylene with benzene, 100% |
| Butadiene | 7868 | From steam cracking hydrocarbons, 100% |
| Polyurethane | 7720 | Reaction of toluene diisocyanate with polyols, 50% Reaction of methylene diphenyl diisocyanate with polyols, 50% |
| Acetic acid | 7310 | Carbonylation of methanol, 80% Oxidation of acetaldehyde, 20% |
| Formaldehyde | 6450 | Oxydehydration of methanol, 100% |
| Phenol | 5586 | Oxidation of cumene, 96% Oxidation of toluene, 4% |
| Cyclohexane | 5100 | Hydrogenation of benzene, 100% |
| Propylene oxide | 4877 | Indirect oxidation via chlorohydrin, 51% Indirect oxidation via tert-butyl hydroperoxide, 30% Indirect oxidation via ethylbenzene hydroperoxide, 19% |
| Chemical | Product Volume, Global (ktonne/year) | Fossil Production Method Share, Global, 2007 |
|---|---|---|
| Polyetherpolyols | 4816 | Polyaddition of epoxies to an initiator, 100% |
| Acrylonitrile | 4704 | Ammoxidation of propylene, 100% |
| Caprolactam | 4160 | From cyclohexane, 54% From phenol, 46% |
| Acetone | 3900 | Dehydrogenation of isopropanol, 10% |
| Phthalic anhydride | 3200 | Oxidation of o-xylene, 85% Oxidation of naphthalene, 15% |
| Dimethyl terephthalate | 3096 | Oxidation of p-xylene, esterification with methanol, 100% |
| Aniline | 3010 | Hydrogenation of nitrobenzene, 100% |
| Dioctylphthalate | 2880 | Esterification of phthalic anhydride with 2-ethylhexanol, 100% |
| Acetaldehyde | 2566 | Oxidation of ethylene, 100% |
| Nitrobenzene | 2468 | Nitration of benzene, 100% |
| 2-ethylhexanol | 2408 | Hydroformylation of propylene, 100% |
| Bisphenol-A | 2300 | Condensation of phenol with acetone, 100% |
| Polyamide 66 | 2237 | Polycondensation of adipic acid with hexamethylenediamine, 100% |
| Polyamide 6 | 2237 | Polymerization of caprolactam, 100% |
| Methylene diphenyl diisocyanate | 2159 | Condensation of aniline with formaldehyde, phosgenation to methylene diphenyl diisocyanate, 100% |
| Urea formaldehyde resin | 2129 | Condensation of urea with formaldehyde, 100% |
| Adipic acid | 2100 | Oxidation of cyclohexane, 100% |
| Isopropanol | 1806 | Hydration of propene, 100% |
| Polycarbonate | 1500 | Polycondensation of bisphenol-A with phosgene, 100% |
| Hexamethylenediamine | 1346 | Ammonia with adipic acid, 52% Hydrogen cyanide with butadiene, 25% Hydrogenation of acrylonitrile, 23% |
| Toluene diisocyanate | 1213 | Nitration of toluene, phosgenation to TDI, 100% |
| n-butanol | 1019 | Hydroformylation of propylene, hydrogenation of buteraldehyde, 100% |
a Ammonia and chlorine are not carbon-based chemicals but are included in this table as they are major parts of the chemical industry.
SOURCE: Modified from Neelis et al. (2007).
TABLE I-2 Availability, Conversion Technologies, Relevant Application and Markets, and Barriers to Wider Adoption of Alternative Carbon Feedstocks Compared to CO2 for Selected Applications or Markets
| Carbon Feedstocks | Global Feedstock Availability (Data Year)a | Conversion Technologies | Relevant Application/Markets | Barriers to Wider Adoption |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Woody biomass | 1100 Mt C/yr (2019–2020) | Pyrolysis Gasificationb,c,d | Biodiesel and gasoline Sustainable aviation fuel Biochar—soil amendments Combined heat and power Renewable natural gas Biochemicals |
|
| Agricultural, forestry and livestock residues | 770 Mt C/yr (2019–2020) | Fermentation Anaerobic digestion Gasification Pyrolysis | Mixed alcohols Renewable natural gas Combined heat and powere Biodiesel and gasolineb,d Basic chemicals and intermediates Sustainable aviation fuelf |
|
| Municipal solid waste and food losses | 870 Mt C/yr | |||
| Crops | 2300 Mt C/yr (2019–2020) | |||
| Aquatic biomass, algae, etc. | 25 Mt C/yr (2019–2020) | Fermentation Anaerobic digestion Photobioreactors Gasification Pyrolysis | Basic chemicals and intermediates Pharmaceuticalse Animal feede Biodiesel and gasolinee Sustainable aviation fuel Renewable natural gas |
|
| Coal waste | 70–90 Mt/yr (United States, 2021–2022)g | Precipitation Compounding Pyrolysis Electrochemical Gasification Liquefaction Melt spinning Extraction | Pigments Agriculture Construction materials Energy storage materials Carbon fiber Carbon foam Three-dimensional (3D) printing materials Cement Concrete Critical minerals |
|
| Recycled plastics | 360 Mt C/yr (2020–2022)h | Pyrolysis Gasification Hydrolysis Mechanical | Biodiesel and gasoline Basic chemicals and intermediates Combined heat and power Polymers and their precursors |
|
a Unless otherwise noted, data are from Kähler et al. (2023).
b From Hrbek (2021).
c From Mednikov (2018).
d From Molino et al. (2018).
e From Bacovsky et al. (2022).
f From Mesfun (2021).
g From Gassenheimer and Shaynak (2023). Includes impoundment waste, which is a mixture of water, coal fines (small particles of coal), and other substances generated during coal mining and processing activities. Does not include coal waste from acid mine drainage and coal combustion residuals.
h This value is based on the volume of embedded carbon in all global polymers. Current production of recycled plastics is at 24.3 Mt.
NOTE: This table is not exhaustive, and there may feedstocks, conversion technologies, applications, and barriers to adoption not mentioned.
SOURCES: Based on data from Al-Rumaihi et al. (2022); Bacovsky et al. (2022); Hrbek (2021); Kähler et al. (2023); Mednikov (2018); Mesfun (2021); Molino et al. (2018); Sorunmu et al. (2020).
REFERENCES
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