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Suggested Citation: "Appendix K: Elemental Carbon Products Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Utilization Infrastructure, Markets, and Research and Development: A Final Report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27732.

K

Elemental Carbon Products Literature Review

A summary of carbon dioxide to elemental carbon (CTEC) research and development history is given in Table K-1. Table K-1 not only lists the major technology and the major reaction conditions used for CTEC but also the structure characteristics of CTEC products. The table shading helps to cluster rows by method; blue represents thermochemical, yellow represents electrochemical, orange represents photochemical, and green represents plasmachemical processes.

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Suggested Citation: "Appendix K: Elemental Carbon Products Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Utilization Infrastructure, Markets, and Research and Development: A Final Report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27732.

TABLE K-1 Relationship Among Carbon Dioxide to Elemental Carbon Methods, Reaction Conditions, and Generated Products

Method	Method Detail	No.	Year	Main Reaction Conditions	Product	Reference
Thermochemical	Cation-excess	1	1990	3 g cation-excess magnetite Reaction system: batch Reaction time: 1.7 h	Unknown-structure carbon	Tamaura and Tahata (1990)
	Cation-excess	2	1992	2.0 g active wustite (Fe_δO, with a δ value of 0.98) Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 300°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Kodama et al. (1992)
	Cation-excess	3	1992	Oxygen-deficient magnetite Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 300°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Tamaura and Nishizawa (1992)
	Cation-excess	4	1993	Rhodium-bearing magnetite Reaction temperature: 300°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Akanuma et al. (1993a)
	Cation-excess	5	1993	Oxygen-deficient Mn(II) ferrite Reaction temperature: 300°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Tabata et al. (1993a)
	Cation-excess	6	1993	Oxygen-deficient Mn(II)-bearing ferrites (Mn_xFe_3–xO_4–δ, O≤x≤1, δ>0) Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction temperature: 300°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Tabata et al. (1993b)
	Cation-excess	7	1993	Oxygen-deficient magnetite (ODM) Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 520°C	Mixture of carbon nanomaterials (CNMs)	Akanuma et al. (1993b)
	Cation-excess	8	1994	Hydrogen-activated Ni(II)-bearing ferrite Reaction temperature: 300°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Kato et al. (1994)
	Cation-excess	9	1994	Ni(II)- and Co(II)-bearing ferrites Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 300°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Kodama et al. (1994b)
	Cation-excess	10	1994	Oxygen-deficient Zn II-bearing ferrites (Zn_xFe_3–xO₄ –δ, 0 ≤x≤1, δ>0) Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 300°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Tabata et al. (1994a)
	Cation-excess	11	1994	Oxygen-deficient magnetite Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 350°C	Graphite	Tsuji et al. (1994)
	Cation-excess	12	1994	Oxygen-deficient Zn(II)-bearing ferrites (Zn_xFe_3–xO_4–δ, 0≤x≤l, δ>0) Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 520°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Tabata et al. (1994b)
	Cation-excess	13	1994	Ni(II)- and Co(II)-bearing ferrites Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 300°C	Graphite	Kodama et al. (1994a)
	Cation-excess	14	1995	Ni(II)-bearing ferrite/magnetite Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 300°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Kodama et al. (1995c)
	Cation-excess	15	1995	Cation-excess magnetite Reaction temperature 80°C (358 K)	Unknown-structure carbon	Zhang et al. (1995)
	Cation-excess	16	1995	Oxygen-deficient Ni(II)-bearing ferrite (ODNF: Ni_0.39Fe_2.61O_4–δ) Reaction temperature 300°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Kodama et al. (1995a)

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Suggested Citation: "Appendix K: Elemental Carbon Products Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Utilization Infrastructure, Markets, and Research and Development: A Final Report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27732.

Method Detail	No.	Year	Main Reaction Conditions	Product	Reference
Cation-excess	17	1995	Ni(II)-bearing ferrite (UNF) Ni²⁺_0.36Fe²⁺_0.45Fe³⁺_2.19O_4.10 Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 300°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Kodama et al. (1995b)
Cation-excess	18	1995	Oxygen-deficient magnetite Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction temperature: 300°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Wada et al. (1995)
Cation-excess	19	1996	Cation-excess magnetite Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 290°C (563 K)	Unknown-structure carbon	Zhang et al. (1996)
Cation-excess	20	1996	1 g Ni(II)-bearing ferrite (NF) Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 300°C Reaction time: 60 min	Unknown-structure carbon	Tsuji et al. (1996a)
Cation-excess	21	1996	Impregnated Rh, Pt, and Ce on Ni(II)-bearing ferrite (NF) Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 300°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Tsuji et al. (1996b)
Cation-excess	22	1997	1 g Nanophase Zn ferrites Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 300°C Reaction time: 30 min	Unknown-structure carbon	Komarneni et al. (1997)
Cation-excess	23	1997	0.3 kg Ni ferrite Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction temperature: 350°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Yoshida et al. (1997)
Cation-excess	24	1997	Wurtzite (Fe_1–yO); 500°C (773 K) Reaction system: semi-batch	Unknown-structure carbon	Ehrensberger et al. (1997)
Cation-excess	25	1998	Oxygen-deficient Ni(II)-bearing ferrite (ODNF)	Unknown-structure carbon	Sano et al. (1998)
Cation-excess	26	1999	20 g active wustite (Fe_δO, with a δ value of 0.98) Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 300°C (573 K)	Unknown-structure carbon	Zhang et al. (1999)
Cation-excess	27	2000	20 g oxygen-deficient magnetite Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 300°C Reaction time: 180 min	Unknown-structure carbon	Zhang et al. (2000a)
Cation-excess	28	2000	20 g oxygen-deficient magnetite Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 300°C Reaction time: 180 min	Unknown-structure carbon	Zhang et al. (2000b)
Cation-excess	29	2001	1 g ultra-fine (Ni,Zn)-ferrites Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction temperature: 300°C Reaction time: 7 min	Unknown-structure carbon	Kim et al. (2001)
Cation-excess	30	2001	(Ni_x, Zn_1–x) Fe₂O_4–δ ferrites Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction temperature: 300°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Kim and Ahn (2001)
Cation-excess	31	2001	Nano-size ferrites (Ni_0.5Cu_0.5) Fe₂O4 Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction temperature: 800°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Shin et al. (2004)

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Suggested Citation: "Appendix K: Elemental Carbon Products Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Utilization Infrastructure, Markets, and Research and Development: A Final Report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27732.

Method Detail	No.	Year	Main Reaction Conditions	Product	Reference
Cation-excess	32	2004	(Mn_0.67Ni_0.33) Fe₂O4 Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction temperature: 300°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Hwang and Wang (2004)
Cation-excess	33	2005	Co-doped ferrite (NiFe₂O₄)	Unknown-structure carbon	Fu et al. (2005)
Cation-excess	34	2006	CoFe₂O₄ nanoparticles Reaction temperature: 500°C	Carbon nanotubes (CNTs)	Khedr et al. (2006)
Cation-excess	35	2006	Spinel structure NiFe_2–xCr_xO₄ (x = 0, 0.08) Reaction system: batch	Unknown-structure carbon	Linshen et al. (2006)
Cation-excess	36	2007	5 g mechanically milled magnetite Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 500°C (773 K) Reaction time: 3 hours	Graphite	Yamasue et al. (2007b)
Cation-excess	37	2007	0.5 g nickel ferrite Ni Fe₂O_4–δ Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 320°C Reaction time: 120 min	Unknown-structure carbon	Fu et al. (2007)
Cation-excess	38	2007	2 g Ni-ferrite doping different contents of Cr³⁺ Reaction system: batch	Mixture of CNMs	Ma et al. (2007b)
Cation-excess	39	2007	Nanocrystallines Fe₂O₃; 400–600/0°C; Reaction system: semi-batch	CNTs	Khedr et al. (2007)
Cation-excess	40	2007	NiCr_0.08Fe_1.92O₄; 310°C; Reaction system: batch	CNMs	Ma et al. (2007a)
Cation-excess	41	2007	Milled wustite powders; 500°C (773 K); Reaction system: batch	Mixture of CNMs	Yamasue et al. (2007a)
Cation-excess	42	2009	Ni_0.49Cu_0.24Zn_0.24Fe₂O₄; 310°C Reaction system: batch	Amorphous carbon	Ma et al. (2009b)
Cation-excess	43	2009	CoCr_0.08Fe_1.92O₄ Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction temperature: 310°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Ma et al. (2009a)
Cation-excess	44	2011	1.5–2 g nickel ferrite nanoparticles Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction temperature: 300°C Reaction time: 24 min O₂ detected	Unknown-structure carbon	Lin et al. (2011)
Cation-excess	45	2011	MFe₂O₄ (M = Ni, Co, Cu, Zn) Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 350°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Ma et al. (2011)
Cation-excess	46	2012	1 g zinc-modified zeolite Y material Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 300°C Reaction time: 8 h	Unknown-structure carbon	Wang et al. (2012)
Cation-excess	47	2013	1.5-2 g nickel ferrite nanoparticles Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction temperature: 300°C Reaction time: 20 min	Unknown-structure carbon	Lin et al. (2013)
Cation-excess	48	2015	H₂-reduced Fe₂O₃ and Fe₃O₄ Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 400°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Li et al. (2015)

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Suggested Citation: "Appendix K: Elemental Carbon Products Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Utilization Infrastructure, Markets, and Research and Development: A Final Report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27732.

Method Detail	No.	Year	Main Reaction Conditions	Product	Reference
Cation-excess	49	2016	Spinel M-ferrites (M=Co, Ni, Cu, Zn) Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 310°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Jiaowen et al. (2016)
Cation-excess	50	2017	Ba₂Ca_0.66Nb_1.34–xFe_xO_6–δ (BCNF) Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction temperature: 300°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Mulmi et al. (2017)
Cation-excess	51	2019	1.5 g SrFeCo_0.5O_x Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction temperature: 300°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Kim et al. (2019)
Cation-excess	52	2019	Fe₃O₄ Reaction temperature: 600°C	CNMs	Jo et al. (2019)
Cation-excess	53	2020	1.0 g SrFeO_3–x Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction time: 170 min	Unknown-structure carbon	Sim et al. (2020)
Cation-excess	54	2021	0.1 g milled natural magnetite Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction time: 90 min	Amorphous carbon	Liu et al. (2021)
Cation-excess	55	2021	Neat NaY zeolite (control) and Zn-NaY zeolite Reaction temperature: 300–500°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Bajaj et al. (2021)
Cation-excess	56	2024	Spinel Nano-Mn_xFe_3–xO₄ Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction temperature: 340°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Wang et al. (2024)
Reacting with metals	57	1978	Two blocks of dry ice with magnesium turnings	Unknown-structure carbon	Driscoll (1978)
Reacting with metals	58	2001	2.6 g CO₂ + 0.3 g Mg Reaction system: closed cell Reaction temperature: 1000°C Reaction time: 3 h	Mixture of CNMs	Motiei et al. (2001)
Reacting with metals	59	2003	CO₂: 8.0 G; metallic Li: 0.5 g Reaction pressure: 700 atm Reaction temperature: 550°C Reaction time:10 h	CNTs	Lou et al. (2003)
Reacting with metals or metal oxides	60	2008	React with Zn/ZnO and FeO/Fe₃O₄	Unknown-structure carbon	Gálvez et al. (2008)
Reacting with metals	61	2009	0.5 g metallic lithium; 8.0 g dry ice Reaction temperature: 700°C Reaction pressure: 100 MPa Reaction time: 10 h	C₆₀	Chen and Lou (2009)
Reacting with metals	62	2011	3 g of Mg ribbon ignited inside a dry ice vessel, covered by another dry ice slab	Graphene	Chakrabarti et al. (2011)
Reacting with metals	63	2013	2 g of Mg ribbon ignited inside a dry ice vessel at room temperature	Graphene	Moghaddam et al. (2013)
Reacting with metals	64	2014	Lithium and dry ice, ignited with an oxygen–hydrogen torch	Graphene	Poh et al. (2014)
Reacting with metals	65	2014	2.0 g Mg ribbon ignited inside a vessel containing dry ice at room temperature	Graphene	Samiee and Goharshadi (2014)

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Suggested Citation: "Appendix K: Elemental Carbon Products Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Utilization Infrastructure, Markets, and Research and Development: A Final Report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27732.

Method Detail	No.	Year	Main Reaction Conditions	Product	Reference
Reacting with metals	66	2014	Mg and Ca metals, ignited in a CO₂ atmosphere	Graphene	Zhang et al. (2014)
Reacting with metals	67	2015	Mg powder: 1.5 g CO₂ flowrate: 70 mL/min Reaction temperature: 680°C Reaction time: 60 min	Graphene	Xing et al. (2015
Reacting with metals	68	2015	CO₂ reacted with 1 g Mg ribbons Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction temperature: 800°C	CNTs	Wang et al. (2015)
Reacting with metals	69	2016	React with liquid Na Reaction temperature: 600°C	Graphene	Wei et al. (2016)
Reacting with metals	70	2016	React with liquid Li Reaction temperature: 550°C	Graphene	Smith et al. (2016)
Reacting with metals	71	2017	React with liquid K Reaction temperature: 550°C	Graphene	Wei et al. (2017b)
Reacting with metals	72	2017	React with liquid Na Reaction temperature: 550°C	Carbon nanowires (CNWs)	Wei et al. (2017a)
Reacting with metals	73	2017	0.1 mol of potassium (from Aldrich) reacted with CO₂ in a batch ceramic-tube reactor at a temperature of 550°C and an initial pressure of 50 psi for a selected time (12, 24, or 48 h)	Graphene	Wei et al. (2017c)
Reacting with metals	74	2018	Burning of Mg, Zn, and Ni metals in presence of CO₂ (dry ice)	Mixture of CNMs	Bagotia et al. (2018)
Reacting with metals	75	2019	Reacting Ni and Mg with CO₂ Reaction temperature: 650°C	Mixture of CNMs	Baik et al. (2020)
Reacting with metals	76	2020	React with Alkali metals, including lithium (Li), sodium (Na), and potassium (K)	Graphene	Sun and Hu (2020)
Reacting with metals	77	2020	CO₂ reacted with Na liquid	Graphene	Wang et al. (2020c)
Reacting with metals	78	2021	Zn/Mg M ratios: 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 CO₂ flowrate: 70 mL/min Reaction time: 180 min	Graphene	Luchetta et al. (2021)
Reacting with metals	79	2021	Mg metal ribbon ignited in presence of CO₂ (dry ice, two blocks)	Mixture of CNMs	Sharma and Bagotia (2021)
Reacting with metals	80	2022	Reduction agent: a eutectic of gallium and indium (EGaIn alloy) Reaction temperature: 25°C and 500°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Zuraiqi et al. (2022)
Reacting with metals	81	2022	Mg molten temperature:720°C CO₂ flowrate: 900 mL/min	Graphene	Li et al. (2022)
Reacting with metals	82	2022	Mg molten temperature:720°C CO2 flowrate: 995 mL/min Reaction time: 60 min	Graphene	Wei et al. (2022)
Reacting with metals	83	2022	Mg and CO₂ ignition in reaction chamber	Graphene	Colson et al. (2022)

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Suggested Citation: "Appendix K: Elemental Carbon Products Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Utilization Infrastructure, Markets, and Research and Development: A Final Report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27732.

Method Detail	No.	Year	Main Reaction Conditions	Product	Reference
Reacting with metals	84	2023	Reducing with Mg and Ga Reaction temperature: 40°C—near room temperature	Unknown-structure carbon	Ye et al. (2023)
Reacting with metals	85	2023	Mg molten temperature:720°C CO2 flowrate: 500 mL/min Reaction time: 30 min	Graphene	Li et al. (2023)
Reacting with H₂	86	1991	Catalyst: WO₃ (H₂) Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 700°C (973 K)	Unknown-structure carbon	Ishihara et al. (1991)
Reacting with H₂	87	2008	Catalyst: 3%Ni-K/Al₂O₃ Reaction temperature: 500°C	Carbon nanofibers (CNFs)	Chen et al. (2011)
Reacting with H₂	88	2009	Catalyst: Ni/Al₂O₃ Reaction temperature: 440–500°C	CNFs	Chen et al. (2009)
Reacting with H₂	89	2010	Catalyst: Ni/Al₂O₃ Reaction temperature: 440–500°C	CNFs	Chen et al. (2010)
Reacting with H₂	90	2022	Catalyst: Ni/Al₂O₃ Reaction pressure: 1 atm Reaction temperature: 500°C	CNFs	Lin et al. (2022)
Reacting with LiH	91	2019	Reacting LiH with CO₂ Reaction pressure: 5, 15, 30 bar Reaction temperature: 210°C, 340°C, 470°C Reaction time: 30 s	CNMs	Liang et al. (2019)
Reacting with NaBH₄	92	2006	Catalyst: 1.5 g NaBH₄ Reaction system: batch Reaction temperature: 700°C Reaction time: 8 h	CNTs	Lou et al. (2006)
Reacting with NaBH₄	93	2020	Catalyst: NiCl₂; reducing agent: NaBH₄ Reaction pressure: 1 atm Reaction temperature: 500–700°C	CNTs	Kim et al. (2020b)
Reacting with strong reducing agents	94	1991	Catalyst: WO₃ Reaction temperature: 700°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Ishihara et al. (1991)
Reacting with strong reducing agents	95	2021	Reaction system: semi-batch CO₂ flowrate: 100 mL/min Reaction pressure: 1 atm Reaction temperature: 423°C (700 K) Reaction time: 4 h	Mixture of CNMs	Watanabe and Ohba (2021)
Reacting with strong reducing agents (CVD)	96	2013	Ni/Al₂O₃ Reaction temperature: 1000°C	Graphene	Luo et al. (2013)
Reacting with strong reducing agents (CVD)	97	2015	Monometallic FeNi0–Al₂O₃3 (FNi0) and bimetallic FeNi_x–Al₂O₃ (FNi₂, FNi₄, FNi₈, and FNi₂₀) Reaction temperature: 700°C	CNMs	Hu et al. (2015)
Reacting with strong reducing agents (CVD)	98	2019	Cu–Pd alloy Reaction pressure: 1 atm Reaction temperature: 1000°C	Graphene	Molina-Jirón et al. (2019)

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Suggested Citation: "Appendix K: Elemental Carbon Products Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Utilization Infrastructure, Markets, and Research and Development: A Final Report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27732.

Method	Method Detail	No.	Year	Main Reaction Conditions	Product	Reference
	Reacting with strong reducing agents (CVD)	99	2020	30 mg Fe, Ni, Co Reaction temperature: 560°C Reaction time: 1 h	CNFs	Nakabayashi et al. (2020)
	Reacting with strong reducing agents (CVD)	100	2022	Ni/Al₂O₃ Reaction temperature: 1050°C	Graphene	Gong et al. (2022)
	Reacting with strong reducing agents (CVD)	101	2007	Catalyst: Fe/CaO Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction temperature: 790–810°C Reaction time: 45 min	CNTs	Xu and Huang (2007)
	Reacting with strong reducing agents (CVD)	102	2015	Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction temperature: 1060°C Reaction time: 60 min	Graphene	Strudwick et al. (2015)
	Reacting with strong reducing agents (CVD)	103	2015	Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction temperature: ~1000°C Reaction time: 30 min	Graphene	Seekaew et al. (2022)
	Reacting with strong reducing agents (CVD)	104	2015	Reaction system: semi-batch CO₂ flowrate: 900 mL/min Reaction temperature:1100°C Reaction time: 60 min	CNTs	Allaedini et al. (2015)
	Reacting with strong reducing agents (CVD)	105	2016	Reaction system: semi-batch; reaction temperature:1100°C; CO2 flowrate: 900 mL/min reaction time:1 h	Graphene	Allaedini et al. (2016a)
	Reacting with strong reducing agents (CVD)	106	2016	Ge/MgO Reaction system: semi-batch Reaction temperature: 1226°C	CNTs	Allaedini et al. (2016b)
Electrochemical	Electrochemical	107	2013	CO₂ 9.7% or 90% (CO₂-Ar mixture); Electrolysis: 3.1 V (molten CaCl₂–CaO) or 3.2 V (molten LiCl–Li₂O) Reaction temperature: 654°C (923 K)	Mixture of CNMs	Otake et al. (2013)
		108	2013	Electrolysis current range: 0.2 mA–70 mA Reaction temperature: 750°C	Unknown-structure carbon	Guo et al. (2013)
		109	2015	Cathode: a coiled galvanized steel wire Anode: nickel Electrolyte: melt LiCO₃ Reaction temperature: ~800°C Electrolysis current density: 0.1 A/cm²	CNFs	Ren et al. (2015a)
		110	2015	Electrolyte: Li₂CO₃/Na₂CO₃ or Li₂CO₃/BaCO₃ or Na₂CO₃/BaCO₃ Cathode: a Muntz brass Anode: iridium foil Reaction temperature: 750°C Electrolysis current density (A/cm²): 0 ~ −1.2 Electrolysis voltage: <1 V	Unknown-structure carbon	Ren et al. (2015b)

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Suggested Citation: "Appendix K: Elemental Carbon Products Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Utilization Infrastructure, Markets, and Research and Development: A Final Report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27732.

No.	Year	Main Reaction Conditions	Product	Reference
111	2016	CO₂ 90% (CO₂-Ar mixture) Cathode: metallic Ca Anode: ZrO₂ Reaction temperature: 900°C (1173 K)	CNTs	Ozawa et al. (2016)
112	2016	Cathode: a stainless steel Anode: RuO₂–TiO₂ Reaction temperature: 650–850°C	Graphene	Hu et al. (2016)
113	2016	Cathode: a galvanized steel Anode: nickel Electrolyte: molten carbonate Reaction temperature: 725°C Reaction time: 1 h Electrolysis current density: 0.1 A/cm²	CNTs	Licht et al. (2016)
114	2016	Cathode: a Fe spiral Anode: a Ni-Cr spiral Electrolyte: Li₂CO₃-Na₂CO₃-K₂CO₃ (61:22:17 wt%, analytically pure) Electrolysis current densities: 200 mA/cm² and 400 mA/cm² Reaction temperature: 600°C	CNTs	Wu et al. (2016)
115	2016	Cathode: galvanized steel Anode: nickel Electrolyte: lithiated molten carbonate	CNTs	Lau et al. (2016)
116	2017	Cathode: three different steels (16 gauge galvanized steel wire, 316 stainless steel shim, and 1010 steel shim) Anode: untreated Ni wire, thermally oxidized Ni wire, and Ni wire coated with 500 cycles of Al₂O₃ Reaction temperature: 750°C Reaction time: 1 h Electrolysis current density: 0.1 A/cm²	CNTs	Douglas et al. (2017a)
117	2017	Cathode: Varieties of metals Anode: pure nickel or Nichrome wire Reaction temperature: 750°C Electrolysis current density; 0.1 A/cm²	CNTs	Johnson et al. (2017a)
118	2017	Cathode: a Ni sheet Anode: a graphite rod Electrolyte: 2 mol % CaCO₃containing LiCl–KCl Reaction temperature: 450°C Reaction time: 1 h Electric voltage: 2.8 V	Hollow carbon sphere (HCS)	Deng et al. (2017)
119	2017	Cathode: glassy carbon and graphite Anode: RuO₂–TiO₂ Electrolyte: molten CaCl₂–NaCl–CaO Electrolysis current densities: 200 mA/cm² Reaction temperature: 650–850°C	CNTs	Hu et al. (2017)

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Suggested Citation: "Appendix K: Elemental Carbon Products Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Utilization Infrastructure, Markets, and Research and Development: A Final Report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27732.

No.	Year	Main Reaction Conditions	Product	Reference
120	2017	Cathode: scrap metals including steel and brass; Anode: Al₂O₃ coated Ni wire Electrolyte: 40 g lithium carbonate Reaction temperature: 750°C	CNTs	Douglas et al. (2017b)
121	2017	Cathode: a coiled galvanized steel wire Anode: nickel Electrolyte: molten Li₂CO₃	CNTs	Licht (2017a)
122	2017	Cathode: steel Anode: nickel Electrolyte: 50/50 wt% of Na₂CO₃ mixed with Li₂CO₃	CNTs	Ren et al. (2017)
123	2017	Cathode: nickel Anode: SnO₂ Electrolyte: mixed melt of Li₂CO₃–Na₂CO₃–K₂CO₃–Li₂SO₄ (40.02:28.98: 23: 8 mol%) Reaction temperature: 450°C	CNMs	Chen et al. (2017c)
124	2017	Cathode: a U-shape Ni sheet Anode: SnO2 or platinum plated titanium Electrolyte: mixed melt of Li₂CO₃–Na₂CO₃–K₂CO₃–Li₂SO₄ (40: 29: 23: 8 mol%) Reaction temperature: 475–825°C	Graphite	Chen et al. (2017a)
125	2017	Cathode: U-shape Ni sheet Anode: SnO₂ Electrolyte: mixed melt of Li₂CO₃–Na₂CO₃–K₂CO₃ (43.5:31.5:25.0 mol%) Reaction temperature: 450°C	Amorphous carbon	Chen et al. (2017b)
126	2017	Electrolyte: Li₂CO₃+ 0.1 wt% LiBO2 Cathode: Monel/Munz brass/(Ni+Cu alloy) Anode: iridium/Nichrome 60 Reaction temperature: 770°C Electrolysis current density (A/cm²): 0.1–0.2	CNTs	Johnson et al. (2017b)
127	2018	Cathode: a galvanized iron Anode: nickel Reaction pressure: 1 atm Reaction time: 4 h Electrolysis voltage: 0.5 ~ 2.5 V Current density: 0.2 A/cm²	CNTs	Li et al. (2018)
128	2018	Cathode: 316 stainless steel Anode: Al2O3-coated Ni wire Reaction pressure: 1 atm Reaction temperature: 750°C Reaction time: 1 h Electrolysis current density: 0.1 A/cm²	CNTs	Douglas et al. (2018)

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Suggested Citation: "Appendix K: Elemental Carbon Products Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Utilization Infrastructure, Markets, and Research and Development: A Final Report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27732.

No.	Year	Main Reaction Conditions	Product	Reference
129	2018	Cathode: a Ni wire Anode: a graphite rod Electrolyte: CaCO₃-containing LiCl–KCl Reaction temperature: 450°C, 550°C, 650°C Electric voltage: 2.8 V	HCS	Deng et al. (2018)
130	2019	Electrolyte: calcium chloride anhydrous; calcium oxide; sodium carbonate; CO₂ 100% (1 mL/min) Electrolysis: 3.0 V Current: 10 A Reaction temperature: 850°C	Graphite	Abbasloo et al. (2019)
131	2019	Cathode: graphite rod; Anode: RuO₂–TiO₂ Reaction temperature: 625/725°C Reaction time: 4 h; Electrolysis current: 0.75 A	Graphite	Hu et al. (2019)
132	2019	Cathode: galvanized iron wire Anode: nickel wire Electrolyte: Pure Li₂CO₃ (40 g), Li/Ca (40 g Li₂CO₃-4 g CaCO₃), Li/Sr (40 g Li₂CO₃-4 g SrCO₃), and Li/Ba (40 g Li₂CO₃-4 g BaCO₃) Electrolysis current densities: 200 mA/cm² Reaction temperature: 500–850°C	CNTs	Li et al. (2019)
133	2019	Cathode: galvanized steel Anode: Ir/Pt Electrolyte: Li₂CO₃ Reaction temperature: 450°C	Carbon nano-onion	Liu et al. (2019)
134	2019	Cathode: copper/galvanized steel/Monel Electrolyte: molten Li₂CO₃ Reaction temperature: 770°C	CNTs	Licht et al. (2019)
135	2019	Cathode: brass sheet Anode: Inconel 718 Electrolyte: Li₂CO₃-Na₂CO₃-LiBO₂ or Li₂CO₃-K₂CO₃-LiBO₂ Reaction temperature: 740°C	CNTs	Wang et al. (2019)
136	2019	Electrocatalyst: cerium oxide Electrolyte: liquid metal-containing cerium (LMCe)—a dimethylformamide (DMF)-based electrolyte Reaction temperature: room temperature	CNMs	Esrafilzadeh et al. (2019)
137	2020	Cathode: 5 cm² galvanized (zinc coated) steel Anode: 5 cm² Pt Ir foil anode Electrolysis current: 0.05 A, 0.10 A, 0.2 A, 0.4 A, 1 A, 2 A Reaction temperature: 730°C	Graphene	Liu et al. (2020)

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Suggested Citation: "Appendix K: Elemental Carbon Products Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Utilization Infrastructure, Markets, and Research and Development: A Final Report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27732.

No.	Year	Main Reaction Conditions	Product	Reference
138	2020	Cathode: protonic ceramic fuel cell (PCFC) Anode: solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) Reaction temperature: above 900°C	CNTs	Kim et al. (2020a)
139	2020	Cathode: 316 stainless steel with Fe deposited Anode: Copper wire, Platinum wire, and Alumina coated Ni wire Reaction time: 1 h Reaction temperature: 750°C Electrolysis current density (A/cm²): 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4	CNTs	Moyer et al. (2020)
140	2020	Cathode: Muntz brass Anode: Inconel 718, Nichrome or Incoloy Reaction temperature: 770°C Electrolysis current density; 0.1 A/cm²	CNTs	Wang et al. (2020d)
141	2020	Cathode: 0.25-inch-thick Muntz brass sheet Anode: 0.04-inch-thick Nichrome sheet Electrolyte: molten lithium carbonate Electrolysis current densities: 200 mA/cm² Reaction temperature: 770°C	CNTs	Wang et al. (2020b)
142	2020	Electrolyte: Na₂CO₃/Li₂CO₃ Cathode: a Muntz brass; Anode: an Inconel Reaction temperature: 670°C Electrolysis current density (A/cm²): 0.4	CNMs	Wang et al. (2020a)
143	2021	Electrolyte: 20% Na₂CO₃ + 80% Li₂CO₃ Cathode: a brass sheet Anode: an Inconel 718 sheet Reaction temperature: 750°C Electrolysis current density (A/cm²): 0.2	CNTs	Wang et al. (2021a)
144	2021	Electrolyte: ionic liquid (0.5M LiTFSI in 1-butyl-1-methyl-pyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (Pyr14TFSI)) Cathode: 0.5M LiTFSI/Pyr14TFSI electrolyte and a porous carbon layer Anode: a stainless-steel coin cell current collector + a Li foil anode + a glass fiber separator Reaction temperature: room temperature	Amorphous carbon	Wang et al. (2021b)

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Suggested Citation: "Appendix K: Elemental Carbon Products Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Utilization Infrastructure, Markets, and Research and Development: A Final Report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27732.

No.	Year	Main Reaction Conditions	Product	Reference
145	2022	Electrolyte: lithium carbonate (0.1 wt% Fe₂CO₃) Cathode: a Muntz brass Anode: high-surface-area Inconel 600 (screen) on Inconel 718 Reaction temperature: 770°C Electrolysis current density: 0.15 mA/cm²	CNTs	Liu et al. (2022)
146	2022	Electrolyte: Li₂CO₃ Cathode: Stainless Steel 304 or a Muntz brass Anode: Nichrome A/C or Inconel 600/625 or Monel 400 Reaction temperature: 670°C Electrolysis current density (A/cm²): 0.01–0.4	Mixture of CNMs	Liu et al. (2022)
147	2022	Electrolyte: Na₂CO₃ + BaCO₃ Cathode: a planar brass Anode: a planar Nichrome C Reaction temperature: 770°C. Electrolysis current density (A/cm²): 0.05/0.1	CNTs	Wang et al. (2023)
148	2022	Electrolyte: Li₂CO₃ + 0.1wt% Fe₂O₃ Cathode: Muntz brass Anode: Nichrome C Reaction temperature: 750°C Electrolysis current density (A/cm²): 0.6	CNMs	Liu et al. (2021)
149	2022	Metal electrocatalysts: Ag, Bi, Co, Zn, and Au Electrolyte: various ternary, binary, and aqueous electrolyte Applied potential: between −1.1 and −1.6 V versus Ag/AgCl Reaction temperature: room temperature	Mixture of CNMs	Nganglumpoon et al. (2022)
150	2022	Electrolyte: electrodeposited Bi on Sn substrate Catholyte: mixture of PC:[BMIM] BF4:water Anolyte: KHCO₃ Reaction temperature: room temperature Applied potential: −1.5 V versus Ag/AgCl	Graphene	Pinthong et al. (2022)
151	2023	Catalyst: vanadium-based EGaIn (V-EGaIn) Onset potential (−0.97 V versus Ag/Ag+) Electrolyte: dimethylformamide (DMF) Electrolysis current density (mA/cm²): −0.4~0	Unknown-structure carbon	Irfan et al. (2023)

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Suggested Citation: "Appendix K: Elemental Carbon Products Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Utilization Infrastructure, Markets, and Research and Development: A Final Report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27732.

Method	Method Detail	No.	Year	Main Reaction Conditions	Product	Reference
		152	2023	Electrolyte: Li₂CO₃ Cathode: nickel foam Anode: a glassy carbon rod Reaction temperature: 780°C Electrolysis current density (A/cm²): 0.6	Graphite	Thapaliya et al. (2023)
		153	2023	Electrolyte: 0.01 M silver nitrate and 0.6 M of ammonium sulphate Cathode: copper substrate Anode: platinum rod Electrocatalyst: silver Reaction temperature: room temperature Applied potential: −1.6 V versus Ag/AgCl	Mixture of CNMs	Watmanee et al. (2024)
		154	2023	Metal electrocatalysts: Ag, Bi, Co, Zn Electrolyte: ternary electrolyte system containing [BMIM]+[BF₄]−/ propylene carbonate/H₂O Cathode: copper substrate; Anode: platinum rod Applied potential: between −1.1 and −1.6 V versus Ag/AgCl Reaction temperature: room temperature	Amorphous carbon	Watmanee et al. (2022)
	Electrothermochemical	155	2016	Cathode: galvanized steel Anode: nickel Electrolyte: mixed ¹³C lithium carbonate, ¹³C carbon dioxide, lithium carbonate and lithium oxide Reaction temperature: 750°C	CNTs	Ren and Licht (2016)
		156	2017	Electrolyte: lithium carbonate Reaction temperature: 727°C Electrolysis current density (A/cm²): 0.1	CNFs	Licht (2017b)
		157	2024	Cathode: stainless steel Anode: titanium Electrolyze: zero-gap MEA Catalyst loaded for the thermochemical reactor: Fe₃Co₆/CeO₂ 200 mg Reaction temperature: 450°C Electrolysis current density (A/cm²): −0.06, −0.1, −0.15, −0.2	CNFs	Xie et al. (2024)
Photochemical	Photochemical	—	—	—	—	—
Photochemical	Photo-thermochemical	158	2013	Catalyst: 1 g reduced NiFe₂O₄ Light source: 300 W UV lamp (365 nm of wavelength)	Mixture of CNMs	Duan et al. (2013)

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Suggested Citation: "Appendix K: Elemental Carbon Products Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Utilization Infrastructure, Markets, and Research and Development: A Final Report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27732.

Method	Method Detail	No.	Year	Main Reaction Conditions	Product	Reference
Plasmachemical	Plasmachemical	159	2006	Dielectric barrier discharge microplasma	Mixture of CNMs	Tomai (2007)
		160	2015	Plasma zone: a stainless-steel rod of inner electrode and a copper foil of outer electrode; plasma power supply: a monopolar pulsed electric generator and a AC high-voltage generator	Unknown-structure carbon	Yap et al. (2015)
		161	2023	Dielectric barrier discharge plasma Catalyst: dispersed liquid metal Ga	Amorphous carbon	Babikir et al. (2023)
	Plasma-thermochemical	—	—	—	—	—

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Suggested Citation: "Appendix K: Elemental Carbon Products Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. Carbon Utilization Infrastructure, Markets, and Research and Development: A Final Report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27732.

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