Understanding and Preventing Violence, Volume 2: Biobehavioral Influences (1994)
Chapter: Noradrenergic Correlates of Animal Aggression
punctures to obtain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Again, these indirect indices are single values, totally reflecting the activity of many anatomically differentiated, functionally opposing, and interacting systems that follow a daily rhythm and are greatly influenced by environmental and nutritional factors.
For present purposes, the most frequently and thoroughly investigated of the more than 50 identified neurotransmitter and neuromodulator substances are surveyed. The evidence that is examined links (1) direct neurochemical measures, as well as (2) neuropharmacologic manipulations of norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, and GABA to aggressive and violent behavior both in animals and in humans. (3) Major pharmacotherapeutic interventions are reviewed and evaluated for their effectiveness and selectivity in modulating aggressive and violent behavior. Key features of the cited empirical studies are summarized in tabular form.
CATECHOLAMINES
Noradrenergic Correlates of Animal Aggression
Massive adrenergic activity in the sympathetic nervous system and in the adrenal gland accompanies intense emotional behavior, including aggressive and violent behavior (e.g., Lamprecht et al., 1972; Stoddard et al., 1986; Barrett et al., 1990). However, the focus here is less on the autonomic correlates and consequences, then on levels of brain norepinephrine, the noradrenergic neuronal pathways, the alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptor subtypes, and their respective role in violent and aggressive behavior (Table 2, section A).
Divergent changes are reported for whole brain levels of NE, as well as indices of NE turnover and synthesis in animals, just before or after they have engaged in a range of aggressive behaviors. In lobsters, rainbow trout, and pheasants, octopamine (the invertebrate counterpart to NE) and NE are decreased in the more aggressive dominant member in comparison to the subordinate member (Kravitz et al., 1981; McIntyre et al., 1979; McIntyre and Chew, 1983). In mice, whole brain NE is elevated after isolated housing that renders many animals aggressive (Welch and Welch, 1965) or after they have just fought (Modigh, 1973). NE turnover is either increased or decreased in isolated, presumably aggressive mice (Valzelli, 1973; Rolinski, 1975) or immediately after a fight (Modigh, 1973). Either aggressive strains of mice do not differ
